Conservation and Management

Black Falcon is considered not globally threatened (Least Concern). It is widespread, though uncommon, throughout much of Australia, other than the southwestern quarter, where it is rare and sporadic. It was considered to have increased in the cleared or partially cleared sheep-wheat belts of eastern Australia, following the creation of open habitats, the provision of artificial water sources, the spread of introduced birds and mammals, and the growing of cereal crops that favored native prey species (1 Marchant, S., and P. J. Higgins, Editors (1993). Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds, Volume 2: Raptors to Lapwings. Oxford University Press, Melbourne, VIC, Australia. Close , 22 Olsen, P. D., F. Crome, and J. Olsen (1993). Birds of Prey and Ground Birds of Australia. Australian Museum and Angus & Robertson, Sydney, NSW, Australia. Close ). However, it is affected by loss of tall riparian, floodplain, and paddock eucalyptus trees (Eucalyptus spp.); loss of nests and nest trees to storms (through exposure of isolated trees in cleared landscapes); and competition for and interference at nests by abundant corvids and the Sulphur-crested Cockatoo (Cacatua galerita). Black Falcon is now declining in the southeastern agricultural belt (36 Barrett, G. W., A. Silcocks, S. Barry, R. Cunningham, and R. Poulter (2003). The New Atlas of Australian Birds. Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union, Melbourne, VIC, Australia. Close , 37 Debus, S. (2009). Threatened raptors. The Bird Observer 860:25. Close , 24 Cooper, R. M., I. A. W. McAllan, and B. R. Curtis (2014). An Atlas of the Birds of New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory, Volume 1: Emu to Plains-wanderer. NSW Bird Atlassers Inc., Sydney, NSW, Australia. Close , 3 Debus, S. (2022). Australian Falcons: Ecology, Behaviour and Conservation. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne, VIC, Australia. Close ). BirdLife International posited that population trends are stable and that the global population is at least 10,000 mature individuals, but this assessment requires reconsideration (see Demography and Populations: Population Status). A national decline in population index of 38%, and a decline of ~50% in New South Wale (one of the falcon's core range states) in three falcon generations, challenge its national and global conservation status of Least Concern (37 Debus, S. (2009). Threatened raptors. The Bird Observer 860:25. Close , 24 Cooper, R. M., I. A. W. McAllan, and B. R. Curtis (2014). An Atlas of the Birds of New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory, Volume 1: Emu to Plains-wanderer. NSW Bird Atlassers Inc., Sydney, NSW, Australia. Close , 3 Debus, S. (2022). Australian Falcons: Ecology, Behaviour and Conservation. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne, VIC, Australia. Close ).

Habitat Loss and Degradation/Alteration

The main threat to the species is loss of, and disturbance to, breeding habitat and nest sites in rural landscapes, through ongoing clearing of remnant woodland and paddock trees in the agricultural belt (17 Olsen, J. (1994). Some Time with Eagles and Falcons. Applied Ecology Research Group, University of Canberra, Canberra, ACT, Australia. Close , 3 Debus, S. (2022). Australian Falcons: Ecology, Behaviour and Conservation. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne, VIC, Australia. Close ). Isolated nest trees in cleared landscapes are also subject to storm damage, which may increase under climate change. Ongoing loss of remnant woodland may also increase interspecific competition for nest sites (116 Debus, S. (2014). Black Falcons and collisions. Boobook 32:15. Close , 117 Zuccon, A. (2014). Why is the Black Falcon declining? Boobook 32:14–15. Close , 19 Debus, S. J. S., A. L. Bauer, and G. I. Mitchell (2017). Breeding biology, behaviour and foraging ecology of the Black Falcon Falco subniger near Tamworth, New South Wales. Corella 41:71–82. Close , 3 Debus, S. (2022). Australian Falcons: Ecology, Behaviour and Conservation. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne, VIC, Australia. Close ). Much of the croplands and livestock rangelands of Australia are degraded by overgazing, erosion, drainage of wetlands, loss of riparian vegetation, rural tree decline, poor tree regeneration and, in tropical savannas, cattle pastoralists' frequent hot fires in the dry season. Intensified landscape maintenance and increased visitation in a public reserve apparently caused a pair of falcons to relocate to a more secluded nest site (11 Schoeb, M., R. Werner, H. Janetzki, and S. J. S. Debus (2019). Black Falcons Falco subniger breeding near Mackay in coastal Queensland. Australian Field Ornithology 36:40–46. Close ).

Effect of Invasive Species

Black Falcon now preys heavily on various introduced invasive species, including the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus), various rodents (Mus, Rattus), European Starling (Sturnus vulgaris), Common Myna (Acridotheres tristis), and feral Rock Pigeon (Columba livia), as well as on certain native cockatoos and pigeons that have invaded the grain belt (see Diet and Foraging: Diet). It contracts trichmoniasis, and may contract Newcastle Disease or psittacine beak-and-feather disease, from eating infected prey, as known prey species (including abundant introduced birds, e.g., Rock Pigeon) are vectors of these diseases (see Demography and Populations: Disease and Body Parasites). A few species of introduced mammals, of unstable abundance, have replaced a whole suite of terrestrial marsupials and endemic rodents of rabbit size or less (<2 kg) that are now completely extinct or regionally extirpated in southern agricultural and arid zones. Declines and extinctions of potential Black Falcon prey, including the many threatened or declining woodland and grassland birds, are attributable to predation by introduced foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and feral cats (Felis catus), and to habitat clearance and degradation. Rabbits and exotic rodents, especially when numbers are in plague proportions, are aggressively controlled with poisons that risk secondary poisoning in raptors.

The arid and semi-arid rangelands and unstocked arid lands are degraded due to overgrazing by introduced herbivores including rabbits, and feral camels (Camelus dromedarius), goats, donkeys, and horses. Invasive buffel-grass (Cenchrus ciliaris) in arid and semi-arid lands increases the risk of hot fires that destroy old riparian trees (i.e., raptor breeding habitat and nest trees).

Shooting and Trapping

Black Falcon is subject to a low level of deliberate persecution, e.g., occasional cases of shooting (5 Debus, S. J. S., and J. Olsen (2011). Some aspects of the biology of the Black Falcon Falco subniger. Corella 35:29–36. Close ). Historical use of a pigeon barn to trap or source falcons for banding purposes (17 Olsen, J. (1994). Some Time with Eagles and Falcons. Applied Ecology Research Group, University of Canberra, Canberra, ACT, Australia. Close , 5 Debus, S. J. S., and J. Olsen (2011). Some aspects of the biology of the Black Falcon Falco subniger. Corella 35:29–36. Close ) suggests that falcons are or were a concern to pigeon fanciers, and therefore likely attracted persecution in some areas.

Collisions with Stationary/Moving Structures or Object Electrocution

Black Falcon collides with vehicles, barbed-wire and other rural fences, and vehicles; it also occasionally collides with power lines and wind turbines, and there is a high rescue and euthanasia rate of falcons that are injured from these collisions (116 Debus, S. (2014). Black Falcons and collisions. Boobook 32:15. Close , 117 Zuccon, A. (2014). Why is the Black Falcon declining? Boobook 32:14–15. Close , 3 Debus, S. (2022). Australian Falcons: Ecology, Behaviour and Conservation. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne, VIC, Australia. Close ). In addition to collisions, it may occasionally be electrocuted on power poles, as it can land on dangerous poles with live wires closer to the cross-arms than the length of a falcon's wingspan (SJSD). Any effects of collisions and electrocutions at the population level are unknown, but could be a factor in the falcon's decline in the heavily human-settled agricultural belt.

Pesticides and Other Contaminants/Toxics

The eggshell thickness of Black Falcons was not significantly affected at the population-level during the DDT era, although individual shell thinning of up to 18% was detected (115 Olsen, P. D., P. Fuller, and T. G. Marples (1993). Pesticide-related eggshell thinning in Australian raptors. Emu 93:1–11. Close , 13 Olsen, P. (1995). Australian Birds of Prey. University of New South Wales Press, Sydney, NSW, Australia. Close ). Black Falcon is potentially affected by secondary poisoning from eating rabbits baited with pindone, from eating rodents baited with second-generation anticoagulant rodenticides, from eating locusts sprayed with insecticides, and perhaps through scavenging on illegally poisoned carcasses intended to kill other carnivores such as eagles or foxes. However, there are no relevant data, nor information on chemical contamination in the Black Falcon, or on any individual or population effects.

Human/Research Impacts

Little information. Black Falcon nests in farmland, within sight of farmhouses and where it is habituated to routine human activities within 50–100 m of the nest. It is tolerant of observational studies conducted by telescope at a discreet distance, although some pairs, e.g., those nesting in more secluded woodland, may be more wary and flush readily at human approach, or change nest sites (7 Debus, S. J. S., T. S. Hatfield, G. S. Olde, and A. B. Rose (2005). Breeding behaviour and diet of a pair of Black Falcons Falco subniger in northern New South Wales. Australian Field Ornithology 22:165–181. Close , 38 Debus, S. J. S., and L. R. Tsang (2011). Notes on Black Falcons Falco subniger breeding near Tamworth, New South Wales. Australian Field Ornithology 28:13–26. Close , 9 Charley, D., H. Lutter, and S. J. S. Debus (2014). Breeding behaviour and prey of Black Falcons Falco subniger, including food-caching. South Australian Ornithologist 40:11–30. Close , 10 Whelan, D. J., B. W. McRitchie, L. J. Pickering, and S.J.S. Debus (2016). Observations on a breeding pair of Black Falcons Falco subniger in southern Victoria. Australian Field Ornithology 33:159–166. Close , 19 Debus, S. J. S., A. L. Bauer, and G. I. Mitchell (2017). Breeding biology, behaviour and foraging ecology of the Black Falcon Falco subniger near Tamworth, New South Wales. Corella 41:71–82. Close , 11 Schoeb, M., R. Werner, H. Janetzki, and S. J. S. Debus (2019). Black Falcons Falco subniger breeding near Mackay in coastal Queensland. Australian Field Ornithology 36:40–46. Close ). The falcons are also tolerant of photographic studies from a hide if a respectful protocol of hide establishment and occupation is followed (98 Cupper, J., and L. Cupper (1981). Hawks in Focus. Jaclin, Mildura, VIC, Australia. Close , 45 Hollands, D. (1984). Eagles, Hawks and Falcons of Australia. Nelson, Melbourne, VIC, Australia. Close ). Disturbance is considered unlikely to cause desertion of young (1 Marchant, S., and P. J. Higgins, Editors (1993). Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds, Volume 2: Raptors to Lapwings. Oxford University Press, Melbourne, VIC, Australia. Close ), inferred here to mean, e.g., climbing to nests to band young and collect prey remains (5 Debus, S. J. S., and J. Olsen (2011). Some aspects of the biology of the Black Falcon Falco subniger. Corella 35:29–36. Close ). However, repeated nest visits, even on the ground below, may encourage females to guard nestlings instead of foraging (7 Debus, S. J. S., T. S. Hatfield, G. S. Olde, and A. B. Rose (2005). Breeding behaviour and diet of a pair of Black Falcons Falco subniger in northern New South Wales. Australian Field Ornithology 22:165–181. Close , 11 Schoeb, M., R. Werner, H. Janetzki, and S. J. S. Debus (2019). Black Falcons Falco subniger breeding near Mackay in coastal Queensland. Australian Field Ornithology 36:40–46. Close ). Early and inept capture practices for banding purposes, using padded leg-hold traps in a pigeon barn, injured some falcons, until the capture method was improved (17 Olsen, J. (1994). Some Time with Eagles and Falcons. Applied Ecology Research Group, University of Canberra, Canberra, ACT, Australia. Close , 5 Debus, S. J. S., and J. Olsen (2011). Some aspects of the biology of the Black Falcon Falco subniger. Corella 35:29–36. Close ). Otherwise, there has been little hands-on research on the species.

Conservation Measures and Habitat Management

Black Falcon is listed under CITES II, and is legally protected in all mainland Australian jurisdictions. It is not federally listed as threatened in Australia. However, it is state-listed as Vulnerable under wildlife legislation in three southern states: New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia.

Conservation measures have mostly involved declaration of protected areas (such as national parks, other reserves, and indigenous lands) throughout the species’ range, which coincidentally includes breeding populations or pairs of falcons, along with up-listing of the falcon's conservation status to Vulnerable in southern states. Such increased legal protection carries higher penalties for actions that deliberately harm or kill individual falcons (i.e., direct persecution), and requires management guidelines and risk assessments for avoiding or mitigating impacts of development on nest sites. Where habitat removal is unavoidable, legislation can also require offsets to maintain and improve habitat elsewhere, although such restoration may take decades, and “offsetting” can be in the form of funds directed to research if comparable offset land or habitat is unavailable. In practice, no such funds have been directed to Black Falcon research. In some states, other legislation provides some degree of control or restraint over clearing and conversion of native woodland for agricultural or other purposes. Otherwise, there is no active habitat management aimed specifically at conserving this species. Reintroduction of small (< 2 kg) native terrestrial mammals to some large protected areas, in concert with eradication of foxes and feral cats in those areas, may benefit Black Falcon and its prey, and in the long term facilitate ecosystem recovery in the arid and semi-arid zones.

Some management activities have been proposed or suggested (119 Debus, S. (2015). A possible supplementary management strategy for the Black Falcon. Boobook 33:43–44. Close ), including:

• A community-based (partly volunteer) monitoring program to follow the breeding success of a sample of several pairs annually for several years in at least two areas of the eastern agricultural belt, as part of a government conservation program for this designated "landscape-managed" species.
• A trial of captive-bred, hack-released young falcons from artificial nest sites in rural landscapes, the young being sourced from unreleasable permanent-care falcons in the wildlife carer and rehabilitation network, and imprinted on food species that are pests in urban and rural areas.
• A trial of artificial nests near crops, orchards or vineyards.

None of these proposals has, respectively, been funded and instigated, or considered and discussed at an official level. Some other management actions have been suggested (116 Debus, S. (2014). Black Falcons and collisions. Boobook 32:15. Close ), including:

• Using wildlife-friendly fencing where practicable.
• Using smarter electricity distribution systems (e.g., bundled or underground cables, raptor-friendly pole configurations).
• Reducing the rural corvid population (by better farm management of, e.g., spilled grain and livestock carrion).

Rehabilitation of Sick and Injured Animals

Many injured Black Falcons pass through the wildlife-carer network, for treatment by accredited specialists with approved facilities. Only a small proportion of them are successfully rehabilitated and released, as most are euthanized on account of their severe, high-speed collision injuries, and government policy averse to the keeping of permanent-care individuals (116 Debus, S. (2014). Black Falcons and collisions. Boobook 32:15. Close , 117 Zuccon, A. (2014). Why is the Black Falcon declining? Boobook 32:14–15. Close , 119 Debus, S. (2015). A possible supplementary management strategy for the Black Falcon. Boobook 33:43–44. Close ). Limited re-sightings suggest, anecdotally, that some rehabilitated falcons, released in good health, body condition, and flight capability, function as well as wild falcons (45 Hollands, D. (1984). Eagles, Hawks and Falcons of Australia. Nelson, Melbourne, VIC, Australia. Close ). The latest advances in raptor rehabilitation include large “doughnut”-shaped circular aviaries that permit continuous flying to build up fitness, and GPS tracking of released raptors that reveals survival, ranging behavior, and flight capability. Although falconry as a sport is not permitted in Australia, certain free-flying (falconry) techniques are sanctioned, under appropriate controls, permits, and accreditation, in some states as an adjunct to other raptor rehabilitation techniques; some other states are philosophically averse, on spurious grounds (e.g., myths about starvation rations and mal-imprinting). Rehabilitation and release of Black Falcons, at the scale practiced, does not contribute significantly to wild population levels, but it has other valuable functions such as public education. The use of GPS tracking of rehabilitated birds would contribute valuable knowledge and, coincidentally, settle questions about falcon diving speeds, as has been done for Peregrine Falcon (3 Debus, S. (2022). Australian Falcons: Ecology, Behaviour and Conservation. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne, VIC, Australia. Close ).

One thin fledgling Black Falcon, found unable to fly and having minor shoulder trauma, was rehabilitated to flying weight and successfully reunited with its parents after 10 d in care. Although there were no siblings, the parents resumed feeding and defending it, and it progressed to near independence five weeks after rescue, thus showing that returning a rescued fledgling to its parents as soon as possible is the best course of action (19 Debus, S. J. S., A. L. Bauer, and G. I. Mitchell (2017). Breeding biology, behaviour and foraging ecology of the Black Falcon Falco subniger near Tamworth, New South Wales. Corella 41:71–82. Close ).

Effectiveness of Measures

Large inland reserves probably conserve significant areas of Black Falcon habitat and numbers of breeding pairs across much of Australia. Up-listing to Vulnerable in theory forces governments and developers in applicable states to consider the Black Falcon, but has not encouraged a significant increase in research and monitoring. The effectiveness of specific habitat or nest-site management, or offsetting, is untested, because most major developments occur outside the falcon's breeding range and few nests have been affected by development proposals.