Canada Goose Branta canadensis Scientific name definitions

"Suddenly out of the north came the sound I had been waiting for, a soft, melodious gabbling that swelled and died and increased in volume until all other sounds were engulfed by its clamor. Far in the blue I saw them, a long skein of dots undulating like a floating ribbon pulled toward the south by an invisible cord tied to the point of its V." S. F. Olson (1956) (Olson 1956 Olson, S. (1956). The singing wilderness. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. Close )

This harbinger of the changing seasons, so aptly described above by Sigurd F. Olson, is experienced each fall by naturalists across the continent. The Canada Goose is the most widely distributed goose in North America, and a characteristic species of the Nearctic avifauna. In North America, it breeds from eastern Labrador to western Alaska and is the only North American goose that commonly breeds south of 49°N. It occupies a broad range of habitats in temperate to low-arctic regions, including flat tundra; boreal forest; prairies and parklands; high mountain meadows; and a variety of managed refuge conditions and areas of human habitation. It nests individually or semicolonially, preferring sites on small islands in tundra lakes and ponds, and on margins of lakes, ponds, and rivers. On the breeding grounds, it forages primarily on grasses, sedges, and berries and in wintering areas on grasses and agricultural crops.

Decades of detailed morphological studies along with analyses of molecular genetics have revealed the existence of two evolutionary groups: one consisting of 7 primarily large-bodied subspecies and another of 4 small-bodied subspecies (Quinn et al. 1991 Quinn, T. W., G. F. Shields and A. C. Wilson. (1991). Affinities of the Hawaiian Goose based on two types of mitochondrial DNA data. Auk 108:585-593. Close , Baker and Marshall 1997 Baker, A. J. and H. D. Marshall. (1997). "Mitochondrial control region sequences as tools for understanding evolution." In Avian molecular evolution and systematics., edited by D. P. Mindell, 51-79. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Close , Baker 1998 Baker, A. J. (1998). Identification of Canada Goose stocks using restriction analysis of mitochondrial DNA. In Biology and<anagement of Canada Geese (D. H. Rusch, M. D. Samuel, D. D. Humburg, and B. D. Sullivan, Editors), Proceedings of the International Canada Goose Symposium, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA. pp. 435–443. Close , Shields and Cotter 1998 Shields, G. F. and J. P. Cotter. (1998). "Phylogenies of North American geese: the mitochondrial DNA record." In Biology and management of Canada Geese., edited by D. H. Rusch, M. D. Samuel, D. D. Humburg and B. D. Sullivan, 405-411. Milwaukee, WI: Proc. Int. Canada Goose Symp. Close ) with the small-bodied subspecies now recognized as Cackling Goose (Branta hutchinsii). Even with the split of these two species, the Canada Goose exhibits morphological variation in size and coloration among subspecies; it has also been demonstrated that variation in mensural characters occurs latitudinally within subspecies (Leafloor and Rusch 1997 Leafloor, J. O. and D. H. Rusch. (1997). Clinal size variation in Canada Geese affects morphometric discrimination techniques. Journal of Wildlife Management 61:183-190. Close ; A. Didiuk, unpublished data).

Breeders are monogamous, with life-long pair bonds formed usually during the second year. Offspring remain with their parents throughout the first year of life, traveling together in large flocks of family groups, as far south as Veracruz and Jalisco in south-central Mexico (Saunders and Saunders 1981 Saunders, G. B., and D. C. Saunders (1981). Waterfowl and their wintering grounds in Mexico, 1937-1964. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Resource Publication No. 138. Close ). Many breeding units are recognized for management purposes and what mixing occurs among individuals from different units is a result of pair formation away from the breeding grounds. Females are strongly philopatric, returning to the same breeding area each year; males may wander farther.

During spring and autumn migration, individuals concentrate at key staging and stopover areas, where they are particularly vulnerable to disease outbreaks and sport harvest. Nesting areas in the Arctic are secure for most populations, although oil and gas development places some groups at risk, and in some areas brood-rearing habitat of local migrant populations is being seriously degraded by increasing numbers of Lesser Snow Geese (Anser caerulescens caerulescens) and molt migrants from southern resident populations.

Efforts to re-establish the Giant Canada Goose in its native habitat in the midwestern United States have been so successful that many birds have been translocated from areas where high populations have become a nuisance to areas outside the original breeding range of the species. The result has been an expansion southward of the natural range that now includes areas of suitable habitat throughout the southern and southwestern United States (Nelson and Oetting 1998 Nelson, H. K. and R. B. Oetting. (1998). "Giant Canada Goose flocks in the United States." In Biology and management of Canada Geese., edited by D. H. Rusch, M. D. Samuel, D. D. Humburg and B. D. Sullivan, 483-495. Milwaukee, WI: Proc. Int. Canada Goose Symp. Close , Orr et al. 1998 Orr, D. H., E. F. Bowers and Jr. Florschutz, O. (1998). "Canada Geese population trends, distributions, and management strategies in the southeastern United States." In Biology and management of Canada Geese., edited by D. H. Rusch, M. D. Samuel, D. D. Humburg and B. D. Sullivan, 239-248. Milwaukee, WI: Proc. Int. Canada Goose Symp. Close ). Many of these populations have lost their migratory habit and have become established as permanent year-round residents in areas where they previously had occurred only in winter. The rapid increase of local breeding populations in many areas and subsequent mixing of resident birds with migrants during winter has resulted in uncertainty of origin and racial identity that has created a multitude of management problems and may threaten the diversity of the species across its entire range. Canada Goose populations in urban areas have been increasing for over 50 years (Conover 1998 Conover, M. R. (1998). "Reproductive biology of an urban population of Canada Geese." In Biology and management of Canada Geese., edited by D. H. Rusch, M. D. Samuel, D. D. Humburg and B. D. Sullivan, 67-70. Milwaukee, WI: Proc. Int. Canada Goose Symp. Close ) and are currently a problem in more than 100 urban areas in 37 states, where their populations range in size from several hundred to more than 27,000 (for example, Minneapolis, Minnesota; Forbes 1998 Forbes, J. E. (1998). "Survey of nuisance urban Canada Geese in the United States (abstract)." In Biology and management of Canada Geese., edited by D. H. Rusch, M. D. Samuel, D. D. Humburg and B. D. Sullivan, 506. Milwaukee, WI: Proc. Int. Canada Goose Symp. Close ). Elucidating the biology of urban goose populations and developing management strategies for addressing the problems associated with their population buildup in urban/suburban environments is creating a new and difficult challenge for waterfowl biologists.

The biology of the Canada Goose has been studied extensively, especially those aspects related to population management. However, no long-term studies exist, so much remains to be learned. Recent studies on the genetics of subspecies (Shields and Wilson 1987b Shields, G. F., and A. C. Wilson (1987). Subspecies of Canada Geese (Branta canadensis) have distinct mitochondrial DNAs. Evolution 41:662–666. Close , Van Wagner and Baker 1990 Van Wagner, C. E. and A. J. Baker. (1990). Association between mitochondrial DNA and morphological evolution in Canada Geese. Journal of Molecular Evolution 31:373-382. Close , Quinn et al. 1991 Quinn, T. W., G. F. Shields and A. C. Wilson. (1991). Affinities of the Hawaiian Goose based on two types of mitochondrial DNA data. Auk 108:585-593. Close , Baker and Marshall 1997 Baker, A. J. and H. D. Marshall. (1997). "Mitochondrial control region sequences as tools for understanding evolution." In Avian molecular evolution and systematics., edited by D. P. Mindell, 51-79. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Close , Baker 1998 Baker, A. J. (1998). Identification of Canada Goose stocks using restriction analysis of mitochondrial DNA. In Biology and<anagement of Canada Geese (D. H. Rusch, M. D. Samuel, D. D. Humburg, and B. D. Sullivan, Editors), Proceedings of the International Canada Goose Symposium, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA. pp. 435–443. Close , Shields and Cotter 1998 Shields, G. F. and J. P. Cotter. (1998). "Phylogenies of North American geese: the mitochondrial DNA record." In Biology and management of Canada Geese., edited by D. H. Rusch, M. D. Samuel, D. D. Humburg and B. D. Sullivan, 405-411. Milwaukee, WI: Proc. Int. Canada Goose Symp. Close , Pierson et al. 2000 Pierson, B. J., J. M. Pearce, S. L. Talbot, G. F. Shields, and K. T. Scribner (2000). Molecular genetic analysis of Aleutian Canada Geese from Buldir and the Semidi Islands, Alaska. Condor 102:172–180. Close ) have helped clarify the taxonomy of this bird. Studies on the breeding grounds have contributed to our understanding of diet (Sedinger 1997 Sedinger, J. S. (1997). Adaptations to and consequences of an herbivorous diet in grouse and waterfowl. Condor 99:314-326. Close , Reed et al. 1996a Reed, A., R. Benoit, M. Julien and R. Lalumière. (1996a). Goose use of the coastal habitats of northeastern James Bay. Canadian Wildlife Service Occasional Paper 92. Close ), nesting requirements (Cooper 1978b Cooper, J. A. (1978). The history and breeding biology of the Canada Geese of Marshy Point, Manitoba. Wildlife Monographs 61. Close , Reese et al. 1987 Reese, K. P., J. A. Kadlec and L. M. Smith. (1987). Characteristics of islands selected by nesting Canada Geese, Branta canadensis. Canadian Field-Naturalist 101:539-542. Close , Bromley 1998 Bromley, R. G. (1998). Conservation assessment for the Dusky Canada Goose (Branta canadensis occidentalis). Unpubl. rep. to the Pacific Flyway Council. Close ), breeding biology (Choudhury and Black 1993 Choudhury, S. and J. M. Black. (1993). Mate-selection behaviour and sampling strategies in geese. Animal Behaviour 46:747-757. Close , Drobney et al. 1999 Drobney, R. D., J. M. Checkett, J. M. Coluccy and D. A. Graber. (1999). Precocious breeding by yearling Giant Canada Geese. Auk 116:1145-1147. Close ), brood-rearing behavior (Bruggink et al. 1994 Bruggink, J. G., T. C. Tacha, J. C. Davies and K. F. Abraham. (1994). Nesting and brood-rearing ecology of Mississippi Valley Population Canada Geese. Wildlife Monographs 126. Close , Didiuk and Rusch 1998 Didiuk, A. B., and D. H. Rusch (1998). Movements of Canada Goose broods near Cape Churchill, Manitoba. In Biology and Management of Canada Geese (D. H. Rusch, M. D. Samuel, D. D. Humburg and B. D. Sullivan, Editors). Proceedings of the International Canada Goose Symposium. Milwaukee, WI, USA. pp. 79–85. Close , Jarvis and Bromley 2000 Jarvis, R. L., and R. G. Bromley (2000). Incubation behavior of Richardson’s Canada Geese on Victoria Island, Nunavut, Canada. In Towards Conservation of the Diversity of Canada Geese (Branta canadensis) (K. Dickson, Editor) Canadian Wildlife Service Occasional Papers no. 103. pp. 59–64. Close ), and reproductive success (Brakhage 1965 Brakhage, G. K. (1965). Biology and behavior of tub-nesting Canada Geese. Journal of Wildlife Management 29:751-771. Close , Hardy and Tacha 1989 Hardy, J. D. and T. C. Tacha. (1989). Age-related recruitment of Canada Geese from the Mississippi Valley Population. Journal of Wildlife Management 53:97-98. Close , Moser and Rusch 1989 Moser, T. J. and D. H. Rusch. (1989). Age-specific breeding rates of female Interior Canada Geese. Wildlife Society Bulletin 18:381-388. Close , Bromley and Jarvis 1993 Bromley, R. G. and R. L. Jarvis. (1993). The energetics of migration and reproduction of Dusky Canada Geese. Condor 95:193-210. Close , Sovey and Ball 1998 Sovey, S. J. and I. J. Ball. (1998). "Influence of island size on number and success of Canada Goose nests in northwestern Montana." In Biology and management of Canada Geese., edited by D. H. Rusch, M. D. Samuel, D. D. Humburg and B. D. Sullivan, 43-46. Milwaukee, WI: Proc. Int. Canada Goose Symp. Close , Zenner and LaGrange 1998 Zenner, G. G. and T. G. LaGrange. (1998). "Densities and fates of Canada Goose nests on islands in northcentral Iowa." In Biology and management of Canada Geese., edited by D. H. Rusch, M. D. Samuel, D. D. Humburg and B. D. Sullivan, 53-59. Milwaukee, WI: Proc. Int. Canada Goose Symp. Close , Raveling et al. 2000 Raveling, D. G., J. S. Sedinger and D. S. Johnson. (2000). Reproductive success and survival in relation to experience during the first two years in Canada Geese. Condor 102:941-945. Close ). Studies at staging areas, migratory-stopover sites, and wintering areas have clarified timing and routes of migration (Raveling 1978b Raveling, D. G. (1978). The timing of egg laying by northern geese. Auk 95:294–303. Close , Wege and Raveling 1983 Wege, M. L., and D. G. Raveling (1983). Factors influencing the timing, distance, and path of migrations of Canada Geese. Wilson Bulletin 95:209–221. Close , Wege and Raveling 1984 Wege, M. L., and D. G. Raveling (1984). Flight speed and directional responses to wind by migrating Canada Geese. Auk 101:342–348. Close ), food habits (Bruggink et al. 1994 Bruggink, J. G., T. C. Tacha, J. C. Davies and K. F. Abraham. (1994). Nesting and brood-rearing ecology of Mississippi Valley Population Canada Geese. Wildlife Monographs 126. Close , Giroux and Bergeron 1996 Giroux, J. F. and R. Bergeron. (1996). Spring diets of sympatric Greater Snow Geese and Canada Geese in southern Québec. Canadian Journal of Zoology 74:950-953. Close , Gates et al. 2001 Gates, R. J., D. F. Caithamer, W. E. Moritz and T. C. Tacha. (2001). Bioenergetics and nutrition of Mississippi Valley Population Canada Geese during winter and migration. Wildlife Monographs 146. Close ), energetics (Sedinger et al. 1989 Sedinger, J. S., R. G. White, F. E. Mann, F. A. Burris, and R. A. Kedrowski (1989). Apparent metabolizability of alfalfa components by yearling Pacific Black Brant. Journal of Wildlife Management 53:726–734. Close , Sedinger et al. 1995c Sedinger, J. S., R. G. White, and J. Hupp (1995). Metabolizability and partitioning of energy and protein in green plants by yearling Lesser Snow Geese. Condor 97:116–122. Close , Gates et al. 1998 Gates, R. J., D. F. Caithamer and T. C. Tacha. (1998). "Bioenergetics of Canada Geese during breeding and postbreeding in northern Ontario." In Biology and management of Canada Geese., edited by D. H. Rusch, M. D. Samuel, D. D. Humburg and B. D. Sullivan, 323-335. Milwaukee, WI: Proc. Int. Canada Goose Symp. Close , Gates et al. 2001 Gates, R. J., D. F. Caithamer, W. E. Moritz and T. C. Tacha. (2001). Bioenergetics and nutrition of Mississippi Valley Population Canada Geese during winter and migration. Wildlife Monographs 146. Close ), and detailed studies on vocalization and the importance of various aspects of vocal array in behavior (Whitford 1987 Whitford, P. C. (1987). Vocal and visual communication and other social behavior in Canada Geese. Phd Thesis, University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee. Close , Whitford 1996b Whitford, P. C. (1996b). Temporal alteration and coordination of calls by paired Canada Geese in duetted calling of aggression, territorial and triumph behavior. Passenger Pigeon 58:249-258. Close , Whitford 1998 Whitford, P. C. (1998). "Vocal and visual communication of Giant Canada Geese." In Biology and management of Canada Geese., edited by D. H. Rusch, M. D. Samuel, D. D. Humburg and B. D. Sullivan, 375-386. Milwaukee, WI: Proc. Int. Canada Goose Symp. Close ). Studies such as those of Leafloor et al. (Leafloor et al. 1998 Leafloor, J. O., C. D. Ankney and D. H. Rusch. (1998). Environmental effects on the body size of Canada Geese. Auk 115:26-33. Close ) on the influence of environmental factors on growth of goslings and ultimately the size of adults have been important in clarifying morphological differences among subspecies and the reliability of size differences in the intraspecific taxonomy of the species. The work of Abraham et al. (Abraham et al. 1999 Abraham, K. F., J. O. Leafloor and D. H. Rusch. (1999). Molt migrant Canada Geese in northern Ontario and western James Bay. Journal of Wildlife Management 63 (2):649-655. Close ) has aided understanding of the complex interactions between boreal and tundra breeding populations and expanding populations in temperate regions of the United States and southern Canada. Studies of urban-suburban populations have implicated Canada Goose feces in the eutrophication of small ponds and lakes, as well as the contamination of school yards, parks, and boating and swimming areas (Conover and Chasko 1985 Conover, M. R. and G. Chasko. (1985). Nuisance Canada Goose problems in the eastern United States. Wildlife Society Bulletin 13:228-233. Close , Cooper and Keefe 1997 Cooper, J. A. and T. Keefe. (1997). Urban Canada Goose management policies and procedures. Transactions of the North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference 62:412-416. Close ), and the possibility of disease transmission to humans from direct contact with fecal material or contaminated water (Conover and Chasko 1985 Conover, M. R. and G. Chasko. (1985). Nuisance Canada Goose problems in the eastern United States. Wildlife Society Bulletin 13:228-233. Close , Allan et al. 1995 Allan, J. R., J. S. Kirby and C. J. Feare. (1995). The biology of Canada Geese Branta canadensis in relation to the management of feral populations. Wildl. Biol. 1:129-143. Close , Cooper and Keefe 1997 Cooper, J. A. and T. Keefe. (1997). Urban Canada Goose management policies and procedures. Transactions of the North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference 62:412-416. Close , Feare et al. 1999 Feare, C. J., M. F. Sanders, R. Blasco and J. D. Bishop. (1999). Canada Goose (Branta canadensis) droppings as a potential source of pathogenic bacteria. J. R. Soc. Health 119:146-155. Close , Smith et al. 1999a Smith, A. E., S. R. Craven and P. D. Curtis. (1999a). Managing Canada Geese in urban environments: A technical guide. Ithaca, NY: Jack Berryman Institute Publ. 16 and Cornell Univ. Cooperative Extension. Close ). A better understanding of the reproductive biology of urban-suburban populations with studies like those of Conover (Conover 1998 Conover, M. R. (1998). "Reproductive biology of an urban population of Canada Geese." In Biology and management of Canada Geese., edited by D. H. Rusch, M. D. Samuel, D. D. Humburg and B. D. Sullivan, 67-70. Milwaukee, WI: Proc. Int. Canada Goose Symp. Close ) and Gosser and Conover (Gosser and Conover 1999 Gosser, A. L. and M. R. Conover. (1999). Will the availability of insular nesting sites limit reproduction in urban Canada Goose populations? Journal of Wildlife Management 63:369-373. Close ), and are now applying management strategies based on their findings.