Behavior

The Cinereous Vulture searches for food 7–11 hours each day. Birds feeding at carcasses exhibit agonistic behavior towards other individuals, to maintain their position at a carcass. The species is typically monogamous, but breeding trios have been recorded. It congregates in loose colonies, although some pairs breed alone. Territorial at nesting sites, the species can be aggressive towards conspecifics. Courtship flights occur at the colony.

Walking, Running, Hopping, Climbing, etc.

Information needed.

Flight

The Cinereous Vulture will circle using thermals, soar in a straight line, and glide with periodic short series’ or single wingbeats; both slope soaring and thermal soaring are used. In thermals, the species has been observed reaching altitudes of ca 500 m above ground, from where it descends until the bird reaches another thermal, but in searching for food this vulture employs gliding flight at altitudes of up to 175 m (205 Hiraldo, F. (1977). El buitre negro (Aegypius monachus monachus L.) en la península ibérica. Población, biología general, uso de recursos e interacciones con otras aves. Ph.D. thesis, Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain. Close ). Turning radius in thermals is estimated at 30 m (246 Durmus, S., and G. Keskin (2020). Soaring strategy investigation of cinereous vulture (Aegypius monachus) by sailplane. Indian Journal of Animal Sciences 90(10):1377–1380. Close ). Flight altitude in South Korea was below 100 m in 21.6% of measured flight time, 101‒200 m for 25.3%, and 201‒300 m for 19.0% (n = 11) (247 Kang, T., S. Lee, H. Lee, W. K. Peak, J. P. Yu, and S. D. Jin (2019). Flight behavior of cinereous vultures (Aegypius monachus) in the wintering season in Korea. Korean Journal of Environmental Biology 37(4):579–584. Close ). In Spain, mean flight altitude above ground among immatures was 317.9 m ± 245.7 SD ( n = 9) (248 García-Herrera, J. J., and L. M. González García (2012). Patrones de movimiento y uso del espacio en la dispersión juvenil del buitre negro (Aegypius monachus). Ecología 24:73–93. Close ).

For the characteristics of flight during migration, see Migratory Behavior. For the functional characteristics of stripped composite hemoglobins of the Cinereous Vulture used for high-altitude flight, see Weber et al. (249 Weber, R. E., I. Hiebl, and G. Braunitzer (1988). High altitude and hemoglobin function in the vultures Gyps rueppellii and Aegypius monachus. Biological Chemistry Hoppe-Seyler 369(4):233–240. Close ).

Swimming and Diving

Information needed.

Preening and Bathing

Preening occurs in the morning at nests or roosts, before commencing its foraging flights. There is also preening after returning to the nest. The daily time dedicated to preening has not been studied.

Cinereous Vulture often visits fountains and high-elevation lakes in the Central System of Spain to drink and bathe, drying out on the shore with open wings (16 Bernis, F. (1966). El Buitre negro (Aegypius monachus) en Iberia. Ardeola 12(1):45–99. Close ). One was observed in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve (Western Ghats, southern India) using a waterhole multiple times, for both bathing and drinking, during a period of almost six weeks (127 Samson A., B. Ramakrishnan, V. Selvan, and S. Manigandan (2019). Cinereous Vulture Aegypius monachus in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, Western Ghats, and its status in southern India. Indian Birds 15(3):93–94. Close ). The species has also been observed near water in Altyn-Emel National Park (Kazakhstan), with the birds staying 2–3 hours, bathing and drying their plumage (250 Zhatkanbaev, A. Z. (2011). Surveys of breeding biology of the European Black Vulture in the [sic] south-eastern Kazakhstan. Raptors Conservation 23:182–193. Close ). In Armenia, it drinks at water sources in high plateaux forests (171 Adamian, M. S., and D. Klem (1999). Handbook of the Birds of Armenia. American University of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia. Close ).

Sleeping, Roosting

See Habitat.

Daily Time Budget

Daily foraging time varies over the course of the year, from seven hours in January to 11 hours in June; the species maximizes foraging time in winter by starting out as near sunrise as possible. Rain influences flying, forcing the birds to remain perched and thereby reducing foraging capacity (251 Hiraldo, F., and J. A. Donázar (1990). Foraging time in the Cinereous Vulture Aegypius monachus: seasonal and local variations and influence of weather. Bird Study 37(2):128–132. Close ). While in the nest or at nearby roosts, adults rest during daylight hours.

Physical and Communicative Interactions

The Cinereous Vulture is very aggressive at carcasses, towards both conspecifics and individuals of other species, erecting the feathers of the back, neck, and chest, while half-extending the wings at a 45° angle from the body, raising the tail, curving the neck downwards, and raising the feet with toes stretched out. Another posture adopted in agonistic interactions is the threatening march, in which the bird, with open and then closed and lowered wings, and head up, jumps from one foot to the other, and moves sideways; if the opponent does not retreat, then it is pecked, and in submission, the defeated vulture will lower its own back feathers, raise its leg, lower its tail, and raise its head while moving it sideways (10 Suetens, W., and P. van Groenendael (1966). Sobre ecología y conducta reproductora del Buitre Negro (Aegypius monachus). Ardeola 12(1):19–44. Close , 252 König, C. (1974). Zum verhalten spanischer Geier an Kadavern. Journal für Ornithologie 115(3):289–320. Close ).

Territorial Behavior

The Cinereous Vulture is territorial at nest sites, where the species can be aggressive towards conspecifics; paired individuals defend the nest and the area within ca. 50 m radius around it, with aerial attacks including long descents with interlocked talons observed between pairs at adjacent nests (2 Cramp, S., and K. E. L. Simmons, Editors (1980). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Volume 2. Hawks to Bustards. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ).

Mating System and Operational Sex Ratio

Monogamous (1 Glutz von Blotzheim, N., K. M. Bauer, and E. Bezzel (1971). Handbuch der Vögel Mitteleuropas. Band 4. Falconiformes. Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft, Frankfurt am Main, Germany. Close 2 Cramp, S., and K. E. L. Simmons, Editors (1980). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Volume 2. Hawks to Bustards. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ), but see Cooperative Breeding. The process of mate selection and the traits preferred by either sex are unknown (253 van Overveld, T., G. Blanco, M. Moleón, A. Margalida, J. A. Sánchez-Zapata, M. de la Riva, and J. A. Donázar (2020). Integrating vulture social behavior into conservation practice. Condor: Ornithological Applications 122:1–20. Close ).

Courtship

The first courtship flights start in December, with up to 46 individuals observed flying at the same time in a colony of 45 pairs. Most fly in pairs, one above the other, very close, or side by side, sometimes grappling with their claws in flights that tumble down 60 m. Juveniles that approach adults too closely are likely to be chased off. These concentrations end in late January or early February (205 Hiraldo, F. (1977). El buitre negro (Aegypius monachus monachus L.) en la península ibérica. Población, biología general, uso de recursos e interacciones con otras aves. Ph.D. thesis, Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain. Close ).

Copulation

In the south-central Caucasus copulations were seen between 27 February and 16 April, either on the nest (n = 25), near it (n = 3), or 120 m from the nest (n = 1, 235 Abuladze, A. (2013). Birds of Prey of Georgia. Materials towards a Fauna of Georgia. Issue VI. Institute of Zoology, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia. Close ), and 29 of 36 observed copulations were successful (235 Abuladze, A. (2013). Birds of Prey of Georgia. Materials towards a Fauna of Georgia. Issue VI. Institute of Zoology, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia. Close ). Duration of copulation has been estimated at 30‒60 seconds (1 Glutz von Blotzheim, N., K. M. Bauer, and E. Bezzel (1971). Handbuch der Vögel Mitteleuropas. Band 4. Falconiformes. Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft, Frankfurt am Main, Germany. Close , 2 Cramp, S., and K. E. L. Simmons, Editors (1980). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Volume 2. Hawks to Bustards. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Recorded events in Crimea lasted 15‒20 seconds (221 Appak, B. A. (2013). Sovremennoye sostoyaniye populyatsii chornogo grifa Aegypius monachus v Krymu. Russkiy ornitologicheskiy zhurnal Ekspress-vypusk 22(885):1488–1498. Close ), versus 10‒30 seconds in central-southern Caucasus (235 Abuladze, A. (2013). Birds of Prey of Georgia. Materials towards a Fauna of Georgia. Issue VI. Institute of Zoology, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia. Close ) and 12‒22 seconds in Uzbekistan (77 Sklyarenko, S. L., and T. Katzner (2012). The Black Vulture Aegypius monachus in central Asia. In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors), Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 136–144. Close ).

Pair Bond

It has been suggested that pair bond is permanent (1 Glutz von Blotzheim, N., K. M. Bauer, and E. Bezzel (1971). Handbuch der Vögel Mitteleuropas. Band 4. Falconiformes. Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft, Frankfurt am Main, Germany. Close ), or of long duration, probably lifelong (2 Cramp, S., and K. E. L. Simmons, Editors (1980). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Volume 2. Hawks to Bustards. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ), but information based on banded birds is lacking.

Extra-Pair Mating Behavior/Paternity

Information needed.

Brood Parasitism of Conspecifics

Unknown.

Brood Parasitism of Other Species

Unknown.

Degree of Sociality

The nest is the center of activity for nesting pairs throughout the year (18 Von Dombrowski, R. R. (1910). Ornis Romaniae; die Vogelwelt Rumänien’s systematisch und biologisch-geographisch beschrieben (Forsetzung). Buletinul Societății de Șciințe din București-România 19(1/2):1272–1463. Close , 16 Bernis, F. (1966). El Buitre negro (Aegypius monachus) en Iberia. Ardeola 12(1):45–99. Close ). On returning to the nest, the adult that is there welcomes the arriving bird with a greeting display. First, it adopts a threatening display, ruffling the feathers of the back, neck, and scapulars, then turns and rhythmically raises the legs and tail, and spreads the wings. Then the bird adopts a posture of appeasement, raising its bill, places its body horizontally, stretches the neck obliquely upwards, and rotates the head rhythmically sideways. The arriving adult adopts the same display with ruffled feathers and raised tail. Then both lower their tails and continue to ruffle their feathers, turn their heads left to right and touch the sides of their partner’s head with the bill, gently nibbling the down on the cheeks. These movements can be repeated up to 12 times. Duration of the process is ca. 4 minutes (10 Suetens, W., and P. van Groenendael (1966). Sobre ecología y conducta reproductora del Buitre Negro (Aegypius monachus). Ardeola 12(1):19–44. Close ).

The Cinereous Vulture breeds in loose colonies, rarely as solitary pairs. In Spain 35 colonies and five solitary pairs were recorded in 2006 (254 de la Puente, J., R. Moreno-Opo, and J. C. del Moral (2007). El buitre negro en España. Censo nacional (2006). Seguimiento de aves, 13. SEO/Birdlife, Madrid, Spain. Close ) and 43 colonies and six solitary pairs in 2017 (255 del Moral, J. C. (2017). El buitre negro en España, población reproductora en 2017 y método de censo. Censos 45. SEO/BirdLife, Madrid, Spain. Close ). In Spain, two nests were seen on the same tree in March 1965, each occupied by a pair; six weeks later only one was occupied (16 Bernis, F. (1966). El Buitre negro (Aegypius monachus) en Iberia. Ardeola 12(1):45–99. Close ). Shortest recorded distance between nests is 15 m (171 Adamian, M. S., and D. Klem (1999). Handbook of the Birds of Armenia. American University of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia. Close ) or 20 m (256 Gavashelishvili, A., M. J. McGrady, and Z. Javakhishvili (2006). Planning the conservation of the breeding population of cinereous vultures Aegypius monachus in the Republic of Georgia. Oryx 40(1):76–83. Close ). In a colony of 45 occupied nests, the minimum distance between nests was 100 m and most were sited on a 3 km slope (16 Bernis, F. (1966). El Buitre negro (Aegypius monachus) en Iberia. Ardeola 12(1):45–99. Close ). In two Spanish colonies the mean distance between nests was 446 m and 175 m, respectively (205 Hiraldo, F. (1977). El buitre negro (Aegypius monachus monachus L.) en la península ibérica. Población, biología general, uso de recursos e interacciones con otras aves. Ph.D. thesis, Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain. Close ). In colonies in Extremadura (Spain), the mean distance was 490.6 m ± 372.3 SD (n = 249 nests) in Sierra de San Pedro, versus 418 m ± 558.9 SD (n = 169 nests) in Monfragüe, 935.7 m ± 564.4 SD (n = 11 nests) in Cíjara, and 1,605 m ± 1,365.5 SD (n = 19) in Granadilla (161 Morán-López, R., J. M. Sánchez Guzmán, E. Costillo Borrego, and A. Villegas Sánchez (2006). Nest-site selection of endangered cinereous vulture (Aegypius monachus) populations affected by anthropogenic disturbance: present and future conservation implications. Animal Conservation 9(1):29–37. Close ). In Hornachuelos Natural Park (Córdoba, Spain), mean distance was 1,031 m ± 927 SD (range 59–5,353 m, n = 43 nests) (164 Guerrero-Casado, J., R. Arenas, and F. Tortosa (2013). Modelling the nesting-habitat of the Cinereous Vulture Aegypius monachus on a fine scale for conservation purposes. Bird Study 60(4):533–538. Close ). In two colonies located in Madrid (Spain), the mean distances were 379 m ± 205 SD (n = 16 nests) and 1,362 m ± 930 SD (n = 13), respectively (257 Fargallo, J. A., G. Blanco, and E. Soto-Largo (1998). Forest management effects on nesting habitat selected by Eurasian black vultures (Aegypius monachus) in central Spain. Journal of Raptor Research 32(3):202–207. Close ). In Dadia Nature Reserve (Greece), the median nearest neighbor distance between nests was 646 m (n = 25 nests) (258 Poirazidis, K., G. Goutner, T. Skartsi, and G. Stamou (2004). Modelling nesting habitat as a conservation tool for the Eurasian Black Vulture (Aegypius monachus) in Dadia Nature Reserve, northeastern Greece. Biological Conservation 118:235–248. Close ). In Armenia, distance among nests ranged from 15 m to 3,000 m (171 Adamian, M. S., and D. Klem (1999). Handbook of the Birds of Armenia. American University of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia. Close , 259 Gejlikman, B.O. (1959). [Ecology of some birds of prey in the reserve “Khosrov forest”]. Zool. Sbor. Zool. Inst. Akad. Nauk Armen SSR 11: 5-64. In Russian. Close ). Mean nearest neighbor distance among nests in Georgia was 1,104.4 m ± 795.5 SD (n = 12 nests) (256 Gavashelishvili, A., M. J. McGrady, and Z. Javakhishvili (2006). Planning the conservation of the breeding population of cinereous vultures Aegypius monachus in the Republic of Georgia. Oryx 40(1):76–83. Close ). In Mongolia, the distance ranged from 41 m to 6,935 m (80 Batbayar, N. (2012). The Black Vulture Aegypius monachus in southern and eastern Asia. In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors), Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 145–152. Close ), and in Tuva Republic (Russia) from 800 m to 1,800 m (260 Karyakin, I. V. (2000). Chernyi grif (Aegypius monachus) v Respublike Tyva. In Sovremennye problemy ornitologii Sibiri i Tsentral'noi Azii. Materialy I Mezhdunarodnoy ornitologicheskoy konferentsii, Rossiya, Ulan-Ude, 16-20 maya 2000 (Ts. Z. Dorzhiev, Editor), Izdatel'stvo Buryatskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta, Ulan-Ude. pp.61–63. Close ).

Play

Information needed.

Nonpredatory Interspecific Interactions

When feeding at a carcass, vultures of many species exhibit a despotic dominance gradient from larger species to smaller ones (261 Hiraldo, F., J. C. Blanco, and J. Bustamante (1991). Unspecialized exploitation of small carcasses by birds. Bird Study 38(3):200–207. Close ), as well as from adults to subadults and juveniles. In a study in Spain, vulture hierarchy based on successful interactions at carcasses (percentages in parentheses) was in the following order of species/age class: adult and subadult Cinereous Vulture (75.4%), adult Eurasian Griffon (Gyps fulvus) (70.6%), juvenile Cinereous Vulture (69.5%), juvenile Bearded Vulture (Gypaetus barbatus) (68.4%), juvenile Eurasian Griffon (60.9%), subadult Eurasian Griffon (60.7%), adult Bearded Vulture (55.1%), subadult Bearded Vulture (53.2%), and adult Egyptian Vulture (Neophron percnopterus) (33.3%) (n = 1,049 agonistic interactions) (262 Moreno-Opo, R., A. Trujillano, and A. Margalida (2020). Larger size and older age confer competitive advantage: dominance hierarchy within European vulture guild. Scientific Reports 10:2430. Close ). As part of establishing this dominance gradient, agonistic interactions for access to food are common among these species (263 König, C. (1973). Zum Sozialverhalten von Geiern am Futterplatz in Spanien. Ornithologische Mitteilungen 25:118–120. Close , 252 König, C. (1974). Zum verhalten spanischer Geier an Kadavern. Journal für Ornithologie 115(3):289–320. Close , 238 König, C. (1983). Interspecific and intraspecific competition for food among Old World vultures. In Vulture Biology and Management (S. R. Wilbur and J. A. Jackson, Editors), University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, USA. pp. 153–171. Close ). In one instance, violent physical aggression was recorded, with a Cinereous Vulture causing a serious neck wound to a juvenile Eurasian Griffon (264 Blanco, G., J. M. Traverso, J. Marchamalo, F. Martínez (1997). Interspecific and intraspecific aggression among Griffon and Cinereous Vultures at nesting and foraging sites. Journal of Raptor Research 31(1):77–79. Close ). In Tibet (China), the Cinereous Vulture is dominant over the Himalayan Griffon (Gyps himalayensis) and the Bearded Vulture (265 Schäfer, E. (1938). Ornithologische Ergebnisse zweier Forschungsreisen nach Tibet. Journal für Ornithologie 86 (Supplement):1–349. Close ).

In winter, the Cinereous Vulture has been observed with other vulture species in various regions. One was observed near a waterhole in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve (Western Ghats, India) with a flock of White-rumped Vulture (Gyps bengalensis), Indian Vulture (Gyps indicus), and Red-headed Vulture (Sarcogyps calvus) (127 Samson A., B. Ramakrishnan, V. Selvan, and S. Manigandan (2019). Cinereous Vulture Aegypius monachus in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, Western Ghats, and its status in southern India. Indian Birds 15(3):93–94. Close ). In Senegal, the species has been observed together with the Lappet-faced Vulture (Torgos tracheliotos) and the White-backed Vulture (Gyps africanus) (266 Vroege, J. A. (2013). Europese roofvogels waargenomen in Gambia, Senegal en het zuiden van Mauretanië in februar-maart 2005. De Takkeling 21(1):83–87. Close ). The Cinereous Vulture has been observed at roosts with Eurasian Griffon in Spain (16 Bernis, F. (1966). El Buitre negro (Aegypius monachus) en Iberia. Ardeola 12(1):45–99. Close ). At Mahazat as-Sayd Protected Area (Saudi Arabia), the Cinereous Vulture is observed roosting with Lappet-faced Vultures in winter (267 Shobrak, M. (2003). Vultures in Saudi Arabia. Vulture News 48:20–23. Close ). A Cinereous Vulture roosted together with five Himalayan Griffon (Gyps himalayensis) at Singapore Botanic Gardens on 29–30 December 2021 (268 Yip, J. W., and Y. C. K. Sin (2022). Soaring all over Singapore: Himalayan Vultures in the 2021/2022 season. Singaporebirds.com Close ).

Unoccupied nests constructed by the Cinereous Vulture can be used for nesting by other species. In Andalucía (Spain) the following species have been recorded nesting in Cinereous Vulture nests: Short-toed Snake-Eagle (Circaetus gallicus), Eurasian Griffon, Booted Eagle (Hieraaetus pennatus), Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), and Spanish Eagle (Aquila adalberti) (188 Dobado, P. M., F. J. Díaz, M. A. Díaz-Portero, L. García, E. Luque, J. Martín, P. Martínez, and R. M. Arenas (2012). El buitre negro Aegypius monachus en Andalucía (España). In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors). Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 13–37. Close ). In Madrid (Spain) Eurasian Griffon has nested in old Cinereous Vulture structures (269 Traverso, J. M. (1998). Eurasian Griffon Gyps fulvus nesting on pine trees. Vulture News 39:25–26. Close , 270 Traverso Martínez, J. M. (2005). Nidificaciones en árbol de buitre leonado (Gyps fulvus) en la Comunidad de Madrid. In III Congreso Internacional sobre Aves Carroñeras. Guadalajara 28 abril a 1 de mayo de 2000 (J. A. López-Palacios Villaverde, Editor), Ecologistas en Acción, Guadalajara, Mexico. pp. 59–63. Close ), whilst in Dobrogea (Romania), unoccupied nests of the present species have been used by the Eurasian Griffon and the Saker Falcon (Falco cherrug) (271 Sintenis, G. M. (1878). Zur Naturgeschichte des Kuttengeiers (Vultur cinereus). Ornithologisches Centralblatt 3:146–147. Close ).

The proximity between nests of the Cinereous Vulture and the Spanish Eagle sometimes leads to the eagle harassing the vulture, and cause the egg or chick to be lost, which has occurred on three occasions in Spain at nests of the two species sited less than 50 m from each other (272 Moreno-Opo, R. (2007). El buitre negro. In Manual de gestión del hábitat y de las poblaciones de buitre negro en España (R. Moreno-Opo and F. Guil, Editors), Dirección General para la Biodiversidad, Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, Madrid, Spain. pp. 25–45. Close ). A Spanish Eagle has been observed to kill a Cinereous Vulture that flew over its breeding territory (273 Oria, J. (1999). Spanish imperial eagle Aquila adalberti attacks and kills a cinereous vulture Aegypius monachus. Vulture News 40:37–39. Close ). A Cinereous Vulture nestling was attacked by a Golden Eagle in Altai Republic (Russia) (274 Shnayder, E. P. (2015). New data about breeding of the Cinereous Vulture in the Republic of Altai, Russia. Raptors Conservation 31:153–155. Close ).

Other types of interactions have been seen. In South Korea, a Cinereous Vulture was pursued in flight and kleptoparasitized by a Steller's Sea-Eagle (Haliaeetus pelagicus) (275 Birds Korea - Bird News (2006). www.birdskorea.org Close ). Visits by other species to active nests of the present species could be related to foraging: at nests in the Tien Shan Mountains (China) Red-billed Chough (Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax), Eurasian Magpie (Pica pica), and Eurasian Eagle-Owl (Bubo bubo) were all observed (228 MaMing, R., X. Liu, S. Wang, and D. Wu (2017). Breeding ecology of Cinereous Vulture in Tien-Shan Mountains, China. Raptors Conservation 35:252–259. Close ). Finally, Rock Sparrow (Petronia petronia) nests at Montes de Toledo (Spain) are usually heavily decorated with feathers belonging to different species, including the Cinereous Vulture (276 García-Navas, V., F. Valera, and M. Griggio (2015). Nest decorations: an ‘extended’ female badge of status? Animal Behaviour 99:95–107. Close ).

Kinds of Predators

No predators of adults are known, although one case of cannibalism has been documented (see Diet and Foraging). Predators of eggs and small nestlings include the Common Raven (Corvus corax) (271 Sintenis, G. M. (1878). Zur Naturgeschichte des Kuttengeiers (Vultur cinereus). Ornithologisches Centralblatt 3:146–147. Close , 15 Reiser, O. (1907). Das Dunenjunge vom Kuttengeier, Vultur monachus L. Ornithologische Monatsschrift 32:331–333. Close , 205 Hiraldo, F. (1977). El buitre negro (Aegypius monachus monachus L.) en la península ibérica. Población, biología general, uso de recursos e interacciones con otras aves. Ph.D. thesis, Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain. Close ). In the Sagly Valley (Republic of Tuva, Russia), a nestling was predated by an Eurasian Eagle-Owl (Bubo bubo) that was nesting 60 m from the Cinereous Vulture nest (81 Karyakin I. V., L. I. Konovalov, M. A. Grabovskiy, and E. G. Nikolenko (2009). Vultures of the Altai-Sayan Region. Raptors Conservation 15:37–65. Close ). In Khosrov (Armenia), a nestling was predated by a Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) (222 Ghasabyan, M. (2012). The black vulture Aegypius monachus in Armenia. In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors), Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 121–125. Close ).

Aykurt and Kiraç (277 Aykurt, A. and C. O. Kiraç (2001). Apparent predation attempt by Lammergeier Gypaetus barbatus on Black Vulture Aegypius monachus chick in Turkey. Sandgrouse 23:140. Close ) observed a Bearded Vulture (Gypaetus barbatus) that perched on the same tree as a nest of a Cinereous Vulture with an adult and a nine-week old chick. The adult Cinereous Vulture clapped its wings to chase the Bearded Vulture, which Aykurt and Kiraç (277 Aykurt, A. and C. O. Kiraç (2001). Apparent predation attempt by Lammergeier Gypaetus barbatus on Black Vulture Aegypius monachus chick in Turkey. Sandgrouse 23:140. Close ) thought was a possible predator, but alternatively Margalida and Heredia (278 Margalida, A., and R. Heredia (2002). Interspecific interaction between Lammergeier Gypaetus barbatus and Black Vulture Aegypius monachus: predation or kleptoparasitism? Sandgrouse 24(2):138–139. Close ) suggested that the Bearded Vulture was attempting to steal food from the nest.

Manner of Depredation

Coordinated harassment by two Common Ravens of an incubating Cinereous Vulture has been observed. One of the ravens pecked at the vulture while the other, on the opposite side of the vulture, waited for it to move away to access the egg; harassment by up to seven Common Ravens went on for 12 minutes (205 Hiraldo, F. (1977). El buitre negro (Aegypius monachus monachus L.) en la península ibérica. Población, biología general, uso de recursos e interacciones con otras aves. Ph.D. thesis, Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain. Close ).

Response to Predators

In the case outlined just above, the incubating adult vulture stretched its head towards the Common Raven and adopted a threatening posture, hitting the sides of the nest with its open wings to scare away the crows (205 Hiraldo, F. (1977). El buitre negro (Aegypius monachus monachus L.) en la península ibérica. Población, biología general, uso de recursos e interacciones con otras aves. Ph.D. thesis, Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain. Close ).

In the Sündiken Dağları (Türkiye), the mean flight distance from the nest in response to approaching people was 281.3 m (range 32.1–755.9, n = 43) (279 Kirazlı, C. (2016). The impact of some spatial factors on disturbance and reaction distances on nest occupation by the near threatened Cinereous Vulture (Aegypius monachus). North-western Journal of Zoology 12(2):304–313. Close ). In Tuva Republic (Russia), flight distances of three incubating Cinereous Vultures in response to approaching human observers were 200–300 m, 80–100 m, and just 5 m, respectively; another incubating vulture permitted approach to within 3 m of the nest, but flew away when the observer was just 2.5 m away (280 Baranov, A. A. (1991). Chernyi grif. In Redkie i maloizuchennye ptitsy Tuvy. Izdatel'stvo Krasnoyarskogo Universiteta, Krasnoyarsk. pp.166–173. Close ).