Breeding

Cinereous Vulture has a prolonged breeding season, probably as an adaptation to the unpredictable availability of carrion during reproduction. It nests on trees, rocks, or cliffs. Aerial displays occur from December until February. Both sexes contribute to construction and maintenance of the nest. A single brood of one egg (rarely two) is laid between February and early May, although replacement clutches can occur. The male and female take turns incubating the eggs while the other forages; the incubation period lasts 50–68 days. Hatching occurs from mid-March through May, with fledging during August and September, 88–137 days after hatching. The immature stage lasts 1‒4 years.

Pair Formation

Courtship flights are observed in Spain between December and February (205 Hiraldo, F. (1977). El buitre negro (Aegypius monachus monachus L.) en la península ibérica. Población, biología general, uso de recursos e interacciones con otras aves. Ph.D. thesis, Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain. Close ), and in Crimea in February (221 Appak, B. A. (2013). Sovremennoye sostoyaniye populyatsii chornogo grifa Aegypius monachus v Krymu. Russkiy ornitologicheskiy zhurnal Ekspress-vypusk 22(885):1488–1498. Close ). There is no information about mate selection (253 van Overveld, T., G. Blanco, M. Moleón, A. Margalida, J. A. Sánchez-Zapata, M. de la Riva, and J. A. Donázar (2020). Integrating vulture social behavior into conservation practice. Condor: Ornithological Applications 122:1–20. Close ).

Nest Building

The first arrangements of the nest in France started on 21 December and continued until 14 April, with a mean of 12 February (n = 39; 281 Eliotout, B., P. Lécuyer, and O. Duriez (2007). Premiers résultats sur la biologie de reproduction du vautour moine Aegypius monachus en France. Alauda 75(3):253–264. Close ). Nest construction started in Uzbekistan between 10 and 20 February (77 Sklyarenko, S. L., and T. Katzner (2012). The Black Vulture Aegypius monachus in central Asia. In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors), Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 136–144. Close ) and nest repair in Azerbaijan also starts in February (67 Patrikeev, M. (2004). The Birds of Azerbaijan. Pensoft, Sofia, Bulgaria and Moscow, Russia. Close ).

First Brood

Laying in Spain occurs between early February and late April (16 Bernis, F. (1966). El Buitre negro (Aegypius monachus) en Iberia. Ardeola 12(1):45–99. Close , 282 Hiraldo, F. (1983). Breeding biology of the Cinereous Vulture. In Vulture Biology and Management (S. R. Wilbur and J. A. Jackson, Editors), University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, USA. pp. 197–213. Close ). In the Lozoya Valley (Madrid, Spain), earliest laying was on 6 February and latest on 7 May (average 10 March) (283 de la Puente, J. (2006). Fenología y parámetros reproductivos del buitre negro Aegypius monachus en España central. XVIII Congreso Español de Ornitología, Elche, Spain. Close ). In France, mean laying date was 5 March (range 8 February‒18 April, n = 84) (281 Eliotout, B., P. Lécuyer, and O. Duriez (2007). Premiers résultats sur la biologie de reproduction du vautour moine Aegypius monachus en France. Alauda 75(3):253–264. Close ). In Dobrogea (Romania), laying occurred between 15 March and 8 May (271 Sintenis, G. M. (1878). Zur Naturgeschichte des Kuttengeiers (Vultur cinereus). Ornithologisches Centralblatt 3:146–147. Close ) and in Crimea during March and early April (166 Osipova, M., B. Appak, N. Bagrikova, M. Beskaravainy, N. Klestov, S. Kostin, and A. Tsvelykh (2012). The Black Vulture Aegypius monachus in Ukraine. In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors), Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 105–113. Close ); on 5 March 1989, the height of freshly fallen snow in the nesting area was 117 cm. Along the upper Ulu-Uzen River (Crimea), on 30 March, pairs were repairing their nests; however, no eggs were recorded in any of 18 known nests at this point (221 Appak, B. A. (2013). Sovremennoye sostoyaniye populyatsii chornogo grifa Aegypius monachus v Krymu. Russkiy ornitologicheskiy zhurnal Ekspress-vypusk 22(885):1488–1498. Close ).

In the middle Sakarya Valley (Türkiye), laying took place between 18 February and 30 April (284 Kirazlı, C., and E. Yamaç (2013). Population size and breeding success of the Cinereous Vulture, Aegypius monachus, in a newly found breeding area in western Anatolia (Aves: Falconiformes). Zoology in the Middle East 59(4):289–296. Close ); in Armenia between 22 February and 22 March (222 Ghasabyan, M. (2012). The black vulture Aegypius monachus in Armenia. In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors), Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 121–125. Close ); in the south-central Caucasus during late February and early March (235 Abuladze, A. (2013). Birds of Prey of Georgia. Materials towards a Fauna of Georgia. Issue VI. Institute of Zoology, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia. Close ); in the Tien Shan Mountains (western China), usually in late February and early March (228 MaMing, R., X. Liu, S. Wang, and D. Wu (2017). Breeding ecology of Cinereous Vulture in Tien-Shan Mountains, China. Raptors Conservation 35:252–259. Close ); in Uzbekistan between 20 February and 10 April (77 Sklyarenko, S. L., and T. Katzner (2012). The Black Vulture Aegypius monachus in central Asia. In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors), Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 136–144. Close ); and in Central Asia as a whole laying is reported to commence in early January and end in late April (77 Sklyarenko, S. L., and T. Katzner (2012). The Black Vulture Aegypius monachus in central Asia. In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors), Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 136–144. Close ).

The mean hatching date in France was 1 May (range 6 April‒10 June) (281 Eliotout, B., P. Lécuyer, and O. Duriez (2007). Premiers résultats sur la biologie de reproduction du vautour moine Aegypius monachus en France. Alauda 75(3):253–264. Close ). Hatching occurs in Crimea between late April and first half of May (166 Osipova, M., B. Appak, N. Bagrikova, M. Beskaravainy, N. Klestov, S. Kostin, and A. Tsvelykh (2012). The Black Vulture Aegypius monachus in Ukraine. In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors), Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 105–113. Close ). In middle Sakarya (Türkiye) the first chicks hatched in the third week of March (284 Kirazlı, C., and E. Yamaç (2013). Population size and breeding success of the Cinereous Vulture, Aegypius monachus, in a newly found breeding area in western Anatolia (Aves: Falconiformes). Zoology in the Middle East 59(4):289–296. Close ) and in Armenia between 22 April and 16 May (222 Ghasabyan, M. (2012). The black vulture Aegypius monachus in Armenia. In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors), Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 121–125. Close ).

In France, the mean fledging date was 20 August (range 28 July‒1 October) (281 Eliotout, B., P. Lécuyer, and O. Duriez (2007). Premiers résultats sur la biologie de reproduction du vautour moine Aegypius monachus en France. Alauda 75(3):253–264. Close ); in middle Sakarya (Türkiye), fledging occurred from 1 August to 30 September (284 Kirazlı, C., and E. Yamaç (2013). Population size and breeding success of the Cinereous Vulture, Aegypius monachus, in a newly found breeding area in western Anatolia (Aves: Falconiformes). Zoology in the Middle East 59(4):289–296. Close ); in Armenia between 16 August and 13 September (222 Ghasabyan, M. (2012). The black vulture Aegypius monachus in Armenia. In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors), Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 121–125. Close ); and in Crimea from the second half of August to the first half of September (166 Osipova, M., B. Appak, N. Bagrikova, M. Beskaravainy, N. Klestov, S. Kostin, and A. Tsvelykh (2012). The Black Vulture Aegypius monachus in Ukraine. In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors), Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 105–113. Close ).

Second/Later Broods

In Spain, replacement clutches were recorded in 4.76% of nests where the first egg was lost before 15 days of incubation had elapsed (n = 42), and were laid at least 15 days after the first clutch was lost (282 Hiraldo, F. (1983). Breeding biology of the Cinereous Vulture. In Vulture Biology and Management (S. R. Wilbur and J. A. Jackson, Editors), University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, USA. pp. 197–213. Close ). In the south-central Caucasus two cases of replacement clutches have been recorded (235 Abuladze, A. (2013). Birds of Prey of Georgia. Materials towards a Fauna of Georgia. Issue VI. Institute of Zoology, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia. Close ).

Microhabitat and Site Characteristics

In Europe nests are nearly always on trees, although nests on rocks have been recorded in Spain within very dense thickets of vegetation (Cistus sp. and Erica sp., n = 4) (285 Hiraldo, F. (1977). Relaciones entre morfología, ecología y distribución de los buitres del Viejo Mundo. In Actas I Reunión Iberoamericana de Zoología de Vertebrados, La Rábida, Spain. pp. 753–757. Close ). In 1920, Munn (286 Munn, P. W. (1921). Notes on the birds of Alcudia, Majorca. Ibis 63(4):672–719. Close ) observed two nests in the Alcudia area of Mallorca (Spain), one in a cavern, the other on a ledge, and another nest on a rock was recorded in 2020‒2021 on the same island (287 Manzano, X., and F. Lillo (2021). Confirmada la nidificación sobre roca del buitre negro en Mallorca. Quercus 429:18–20. Close ). In East Asia, the species nests on trees, rocky outcrops, and cliffs (80 Batbayar, N. (2012). The Black Vulture Aegypius monachus in southern and eastern Asia. In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors), Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 145–152. Close ), and cliff-nesting is also suspected in Azerbaijan (67 Patrikeev, M. (2004). The Birds of Azerbaijan. Pensoft, Sofia, Bulgaria and Moscow, Russia. Close ). Typically, the nest is sited on the top of the tree, occasionally on a side branch (16 Bernis, F. (1966). El Buitre negro (Aegypius monachus) en Iberia. Ardeola 12(1):45–99. Close , 166 Osipova, M., B. Appak, N. Bagrikova, M. Beskaravainy, N. Klestov, S. Kostin, and A. Tsvelykh (2012). The Black Vulture Aegypius monachus in Ukraine. In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors), Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 105–113. Close ) and there is a record in Armenia of a nest that spanned two juniper (Juniperus) trees (171 Adamian, M. S., and D. Klem (1999). Handbook of the Birds of Armenia. American University of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia. Close ).

Various studies into the selection of nest sites have reported that the species selects steep, often south-facing slopes, especially the middle or higher parts, on which to nest. It chooses large trees that often stand apart from other trees. All these characteristics facilitate access to and from the nest, using thermal currents and slope winds (288 Hiraldo, F., and J. A. Donázar (1989). Foraging time in the Cinereous Vulture Aegypius monachus: seasonal and local variations and influence of weather. Bird Study 37(2):128–132. Close ). Another characteristic of nest location is that the Cinereous Vulture selects sites furthest from human disturbance (257 Fargallo, J. A., G. Blanco, and E. Soto-Largo (1998). Forest management effects on nesting habitat selected by Eurasian black vultures (Aegypius monachus) in central Spain. Journal of Raptor Research 32(3):202–207. Close , 160 Donázar, J. A., G. Blanco, F. Hiraldo, E. Soto-Largo, and J. Oria (2002). Effects of forestry and other land-use practices on the conservation of Cinereous Vultures. Ecological Applications 12(5):1445–1456. Close , 258 Poirazidis, K., G. Goutner, T. Skartsi, and G. Stamou (2004). Modelling nesting habitat as a conservation tool for the Eurasian Black Vulture (Aegypius monachus) in Dadia Nature Reserve, northeastern Greece. Biological Conservation 118:235–248. Close , 161 Morán-López, R., J. M. Sánchez Guzmán, E. Costillo Borrego, and A. Villegas Sánchez (2006). Nest-site selection of endangered cinereous vulture (Aegypius monachus) populations affected by anthropogenic disturbance: present and future conservation implications. Animal Conservation 9(1):29–37. Close , 256 Gavashelishvili, A., M. J. McGrady, and Z. Javakhishvili (2006). Planning the conservation of the breeding population of cinereous vultures Aegypius monachus in the Republic of Georgia. Oryx 40(1):76–83. Close , 289 Moreno-Opo, R., M. Fernández-Olalla, A. Margalida, A. Arredondo, and F. Guil (2012). Effect of methodological and ecological approaches on heterogeneity of nest-site selection of a long-lived vulture. PLoS ONE 7:e33469. Close , 164 Guerrero-Casado, J., R. Arenas, and F. Tortosa (2013). Modelling the nesting-habitat of the Cinereous Vulture Aegypius monachus on a fine scale for conservation purposes. Bird Study 60(4):533–538. Close ).

Nest site use was examined at two colonies that used pines in the Sierra de Guadarrama (Spain). One was in a maritime pine (Pinus pinaster) forest at 930‒1,387 m above sea level, and the other was in a Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) forest, at 1,315‒2,196 m. In both colonies, nest trees were further from neighboring trees and tended to have a greater dbh. The vultures selected trees on the middle or upper third of steep slopes, and all nests identified were sited between 1,090 m and 1,880 m above sea level, with few roads in the surroundings (257 Fargallo, J. A., G. Blanco, and E. Soto-Largo (1998). Forest management effects on nesting habitat selected by Eurasian black vultures (Aegypius monachus) in central Spain. Journal of Raptor Research 32(3):202–207. Close ). In another highland area (Sierra de Gredos) in the same country, the species nested in rugged areas at relatively high elevations, in mature but relatively open pine forest, whilst in a lowland area (Sierra Morena) it bred in open areas with steep slopes far from human disturbance (160 Donázar, J. A., G. Blanco, F. Hiraldo, E. Soto-Largo, and J. Oria (2002). Effects of forestry and other land-use practices on the conservation of Cinereous Vultures. Ecological Applications 12(5):1445–1456. Close ).

In seven colonies in Extremadura (Spain), the Cinereous Vulture selected steep areas far from human activities. Climatic factors influenced nest site selection, with colonies tending to avoid both the coolest zones at higher elevations (Gata-Hurdes) and the warmest areas at lower altitudes (Monfragüe colony) (161 Morán-López, R., J. M. Sánchez Guzmán, E. Costillo Borrego, and A. Villegas Sánchez (2006). Nest-site selection of endangered cinereous vulture (Aegypius monachus) populations affected by anthropogenic disturbance: present and future conservation implications. Animal Conservation 9(1):29–37. Close ). In Hornachuelos Natural Park (Córdoba Province, Spain), nests were on steeper slopes with lower solar radiation, in larger homogeneous patches with a high proportion of cork oak cover, and further from roads, villages, and patch edges (n = 43) (164 Guerrero-Casado, J., R. Arenas, and F. Tortosa (2013). Modelling the nesting-habitat of the Cinereous Vulture Aegypius monachus on a fine scale for conservation purposes. Bird Study 60(4):533–538. Close ). In Monfragüe National Park (Cáceres, Spain), nests are sited on cork oak (Quercus suber), holm oak (Quercus ilex), Portuguese oak (Quercus faginea), olive (Olea europaea), strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo), and prickly juniper (Juniperus oxycedrus) (290 Rodríguez, A. (2012). El buitre negro Aegypius monachus en el Parque Nacional de Monfragüe (Cáceres, Extremadura, España). In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors), Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 223–226. Close ). In Castilla y León, in Segovia Province, nests are on Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris), in Ávila Province on maritime pine (Pinus pinaster), black pine (Pinus nigra), Scots pine, and prickly juniper, and in Salamanca Province on holm and cork oaks (291 Azcárate, J. M., R. Carbonell, and F. J. Jiménez (2012). El buitre negro Aegypius monachus en Castilla y León (España). In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors), Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 41–51. Close ).

In the western Sierra Morena (Spain), most nests were on cork oak (91.80%), with a small proportion on holm oak (6.55%) and Portuguese oak (1.64%, n = 61) (205 Hiraldo, F. (1977). El buitre negro (Aegypius monachus monachus L.) en la península ibérica. Población, biología general, uso de recursos e interacciones con otras aves. Ph.D. thesis, Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain. Close ). In the Sierra Pelada (Huelva, Spain), changes were recorded in nest trees due to the growth of pine plantations. In the 1970s, 37% of nests were on cork oak, 37% on holm oak, and 6% on Portuguese oak, but in 2009, 51.8% were on stone pine (Pinus pinea), 21.6% on cork oak, 17.65% on maritime pine, 7.8% on holm oak, and 1.2% on strawberry trees (188 Dobado, P. M., F. J. Díaz, M. A. Díaz-Portero, L. García, E. Luque, J. Martín, P. Martínez, and R. M. Arenas (2012). El buitre negro Aegypius monachus en Andalucía (España). In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors). Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 13–37. Close ). On the island of Mallorca it nests on pine trees (Pinus halepensis) located on sea cliffs (292 Elósegui, R. (1970). Sobre la nidificación del Buitre Negro (Aegypius monachus) en Mallorca. Munibe 22: 191-192. Close , 293 Elósegui, R. (1971). Algunos datos sobre reciente nidificación de Aegypius monachus en Mallorca. Ardeola. 15: 127-128. Close , 294 Richford, A. S., J. G. Stewart, and D. C. Houston (1975). The status of the Black Vulture (Aegypius monachus) in Mallorca. Ardeola 21(Special): 225–243. Close , 295 Richford, A. S. (1976). Black Vultures in Mallorca. Oryx 13:383‒386. Close , 184 Mayol, J. (1977). Contribución al conocimiento del Buitre Negro (Aegypius monachus) en Mallorca. Bolletí de la Societat d'Història Natural de les Balears 22:150–178. Close , 296 Mayol, J. (2012). El buitre negro Aegypius monachus en Mallorca (Islas Baleares, España). In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors), Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 69–78. Close ).

In the reintroduced population in the Massif Central (France), all of the known nests were on Scots pine (220 Terrasse, M. (2012). El buitre negro Aegypius monachus en Francia. In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors), Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 84–88. Close ). In Dadia Nature Reserve (Greece), all nests were on black pine and Turkish pine (Pinus brutia) (258 Poirazidis, K., G. Goutner, T. Skartsi, and G. Stamou (2004). Modelling nesting habitat as a conservation tool for the Eurasian Black Vulture (Aegypius monachus) in Dadia Nature Reserve, northeastern Greece. Biological Conservation 118:235–248. Close ), and the Cinereous Vulture selected trees with greater diameter, lower height, lower number of trees in the environs the nest tree, steeper slopes, and greater distance from forest roads (n = 25) (258 Poirazidis, K., G. Goutner, T. Skartsi, and G. Stamou (2004). Modelling nesting habitat as a conservation tool for the Eurasian Black Vulture (Aegypius monachus) in Dadia Nature Reserve, northeastern Greece. Biological Conservation 118:235–248. Close ). In Crimea, it nests mostly on black pine and, to a lesser extent, Scots pine, with one nest on Juniperus foetidissima (166 Osipova, M., B. Appak, N. Bagrikova, M. Beskaravainy, N. Klestov, S. Kostin, and A. Tsvelykh (2012). The Black Vulture Aegypius monachus in Ukraine. In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors), Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 105–113. Close , 221 Appak, B. A. (2013). Sovremennoye sostoyaniye populyatsii chornogo grifa Aegypius monachus v Krymu. Russkiy ornitologicheskiy zhurnal Ekspress-vypusk 22(885):1488–1498. Close ). In northern Bosnia nests are built on beech, more rarely on oak, and in Herzegovina on black pine (15 Reiser, O. (1907). Das Dunenjunge vom Kuttengeier, Vultur monachus L. Ornithologische Monatsschrift 32:331–333. Close ).

In Türkiye, the Türkmenbaba and Köroğlu Dağları populations nests on black pine (72 Yamaç, E., and O. Can (2012). The Black Vulture Aegypius monachus in Turkey and Iran. In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors), Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 131–135. Close , 297 Arslan, Ş., and C. Kirazli (2022). Turkey’s largest Cinereous vulture population in a recently discovered breeding area in north-west Anatolia. Turkish Journal of Zoology 46(1):144–152. Close ). In Georgia the nests are located on Juniperus foetidissima, Juniperus polycarpos, and Juniperus rufescens (169 Gavashelishvili, A. (2012). The Black Vulture Aegypius monachus in Georgia. In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors), Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 114–120. Close ). In Armenia nests are on Juniperus polycarpos (222 Ghasabyan, M. (2012). The black vulture Aegypius monachus in Armenia. In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors), Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 121–125. Close ). In Azerbaijan a nest was found at a height of 1 m on pistachio and juniper branches that had grown together (170 Sultanov, E. (2012). The Black Vulture Aegypius monachus in Azerbaijan. In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors), Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 126–130. Close ) and most nests in this country are on south-facing slopes and no more than 6 m above ground (67 Patrikeev, M. (2004). The Birds of Azerbaijan. Pensoft, Sofia, Bulgaria and Moscow, Russia. Close ).

In the south-central Caucasus, the species nested mainly on Juniperus foetidissima (n = 91), followed by Juniperus polycarpos (n = 21), Pistacia mutica (n = 6), and Pinus eldarica (n = 6). In the northern Caucasus, known nests were all on pines (235 Abuladze, A. (2013). Birds of Prey of Georgia. Materials towards a Fauna of Georgia. Issue VI. Institute of Zoology, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia. Close ). Nests on pines have been recorded in the Russian Caucasus (298 Tilba, P. A. (2009). Gnezdovaniye chornogo grifa Aegypius monachus v Kavkazskom zapovednike. Russkiy ornitologicheskiy zhurnal, Ekspress-vypusk 18(512):1630–1631. Close , 299 Karavaev, A. A., and Y. Y. Potapenko (2018). Dopolnitel'nyye svedeniya po gnezdovaniyu chornogo grifa Aegypius monachus na Skalistom khrebte Severnogo Kavkaza. Russkiy ornitologicheskiy zhurnal, Ekspress-vypusk 27(1610):2307–2308. Close ). In Georgia, the species selected mature junipers on steep slopes in rugged semi-arid landscapes for nesting, mostly on north-facing sites, and far from populated areas (n = 31) (256 Gavashelishvili, A., M. J. McGrady, and Z. Javakhishvili (2006). Planning the conservation of the breeding population of cinereous vultures Aegypius monachus in the Republic of Georgia. Oryx 40(1):76–83. Close ).

In Pakistan nests were recorded on junipers (Juniperus macropoda, n = 14) and on cliffs (n = 34), at 3,000 m above sea level or higher (300 Roberts, T. J. (1991). The Birds of Pakistan. Volume 1. Non-Passeriformes. Oxford University Press, Karachi, Pakistan. Close ). In Central Asia (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan), nests sited on trees, cliffs, and slopes, but also on bushes or low shrubs in the mountains (77 Sklyarenko, S. L., and T. Katzner (2012). The Black Vulture Aegypius monachus in central Asia. In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors), Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 136–144. Close , 301 Pestov, M. V., and Z. E. Nurmuhambetov (2012). Vultures in the Usturtskiy State Nature Reserve, Kazakhstan. Raptors Conservation 24:205–207. Close ). In Central Kopetdag (Turkmenistan), the Cinereous Vulture nests on junipers (Juniperus turcomanica) (302 Efimenko, N. N. (2017). Gnezdyashchiyesya ptitsy-nekrofagi gory Dushakerekdag v Tsentral'nom Kopetdage (Turkmenistan). Russkiy ornitologicheskiy zhurnal, Ekspress-vypusk 26(1439):1779–1781. Close ). In the Nuratau Mountains (Uzbekistan), all nests were on almond trees (Prunus bucharica) 1.5–5.0 m above ground, on slopes of 25-45°, at a mean elevation of 1,487 m ±167 SD (range 1,000–1,880 m, n = 101) (303 Korshunova, E. N., and E. N. Korshunov (2006). The Black Vulture in the Nuratau Mountains, Uzbekistan. Raptors Conservation 5:50–60. Close ). In the northern Tien Shan Mountains (Kazakhstan), nests (n = 6) were recorded on cliffs in rocky canyons, at 1,370–1,500 m (304 Sklyarenko, S. L., M. McGrady, M., T. Katzner, and A. V. Kovalenko (2003). Gruppovoe poselenie chernogo grifa v Kazakhstane. In Materialy IV konferentsii po khishchnym ptitsam Severnoi Evrazii (V. M. Galushin, Editor), Penza and Rostov Pedagogical University Press, Penza, Russia. pp. 249–251. Close ).

In Mongolia, the species nests on rock outcrops, Siberian elm (Ulmus pumila), Siberian pine (Pinus sibirica), Juniperus pseudosabina, Juniperus sabina, Prunus sp., and bushes (173 Stubbe, M., A. Stubbe, N. Batsajchan, S. Gombobaatar, T. Stenzel, H. von Wehrden, S. Boldbaatar, B. Nyambayar, D. Sumjaa, R. Samjaa, N. Ceveenmjadag, and A. Bold (2010). Brutareale und Brutbiologie der Greifvogelarten der Mongolei. Erforschung Biologischer Ressourcen der Mongolei 11:23–175. Close , 80 Batbayar, N. (2012). The Black Vulture Aegypius monachus in southern and eastern Asia. In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors), Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 145–152. Close ). In Ikh Nart Nature Reserve (Mongolia), pairs nested on trees, mainly Siberian elm (n = 103), but also rock outcrops and ledges (n = 242). In Gun Galuut Nature reserve, Choir and Sansar Mountains pairs nested on rocky ledges (174 Reading, R. P., D. Kenny, J. Azua, T. Garrett, M. J. Willis, and T. Purevsuren (2010). Ecology of Eurasian Black Vultures (Aegypius monachus) in Ikh Nart Nature Reserve, Mongolia. Erforschung Biologischer Ressourcen der Mongolei 11:177–188. Close ). In northern Mongolia, nests (n = 4) were found on cliffs (305 Karyakin, I. V., E. G. Nikolenko, E. R. Potapov, and I. G. Utekhina (2011). Interesting records of birds of prey in northern Mongolia. Raptors Conservation 22:204–207. Close ) and in eastern Mongolia a nest was found on an elm in Ongon Els and another was on a rock near the Kherulen Valley (306 Barahkova, A. N. (2009). Records of birds of prey and owl in eastern Mongolia. Raptors Conservation 16:180–183. Close ).

A nest in the Republic of Buryatia, Russia, was atop a larch tree on a south-facing slope 2,050 m above sea level, near the upper limit of the trees (82 Osintsev, A. V., Botvinkin, A. D., and V. V. Popov (2018). Meetings of the black vulture Aegypius monachus L. in the Oka district (Republic of Buryatia) and in the Slyudyansky district (Irkutsk Region). Baikal Zoological Journal 2(23):113–115. Close ). In Altai-Sayan region (Russia), 90% of nests were on rocky ridges, with 5% on riverine cliffs and rocks (n = 60). Mean elevation of nests above sea level was 1,558.5 m (range 1,066‒2,569 m). Mean height of rocky ledges on which nests were constructed was 4.5 m (0.3–40.0 m). Most nests on cliffs faced south (31.67%), southeast (18.33%) and southwest (15.0%) (n = 60) (81 Karyakin I. V., L. I. Konovalov, M. A. Grabovskiy, and E. G. Nikolenko (2009). Vultures of the Altai-Sayan Region. Raptors Conservation 15:37–65. Close ). In Tuva Republic (Russia), nests were on rocks, ledges, and screes, at 1,500–1,600 m above sea level (n = 4; 280 Baranov, A. A. (1991). Chernyi grif. In Redkie i maloizuchennye ptitsy Tuvy. Izdatel'stvo Krasnoyarskogo Universiteta, Krasnoyarsk. pp.166–173. Close ).

In China, the species nests on junipers, cliffs, and rocks (80 Batbayar, N. (2012). The Black Vulture Aegypius monachus in southern and eastern Asia. In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors), Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 145–152. Close ). In the Tien Shan Mountains (western China), nests (n = 4) they were on cliffs, 9‒10 m tall, at 2,300‒2,900 m (228 MaMing, R., X. Liu, S. Wang, and D. Wu (2017). Breeding ecology of Cinereous Vulture in Tien-Shan Mountains, China. Raptors Conservation 35:252–259. Close ).

Construction Process

Nests are built by both sexes (16 Bernis, F. (1966). El Buitre negro (Aegypius monachus) en Iberia. Ardeola 12(1):45–99. Close ). Each year fresh material including branches is added both throughout the nesting period and at other seasons of the year; they also take branches from other nests (16 Bernis, F. (1966). El Buitre negro (Aegypius monachus) en Iberia. Ardeola 12(1):45–99. Close ). A nest in Kazakhstan examined over two consecutive years became 5–7% larger in the course of the second year (250 Zhatkanbaev, A. Z. (2011). Surveys of breeding biology of the European Black Vulture in the [sic] south-eastern Kazakhstan. Raptors Conservation 23:182–193. Close ).

Structure and Composition

Nests in Spain were constructed with branches of cork oak, Pinus sp., Phillyrea sp., Erica sp., Cistus sp., and Rubus sp. The interior comprises finer branches, sometimes augmented by wool, scraps of fur, and pine needles (16 Bernis, F. (1966). El Buitre negro (Aegypius monachus) en Iberia. Ardeola 12(1):45–99. Close ). In Armenia and Azerbaijan, nests were built using large (mainly juniper) and thinner branches, dry twigs, dry leaves, dry herbaceous plants, bark, manure, and wool; twigs were up to 1 m long and 1‒3 cm thick (171 Adamian, M. S., and D. Klem (1999). Handbook of the Birds of Armenia. American University of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia. Close , 67 Patrikeev, M. (2004). The Birds of Azerbaijan. Pensoft, Sofia, Bulgaria and Moscow, Russia. Close ). In Central Kopetdag (Turkmenistan), the nest is constructed of dry branches of juniper (Juniperus turcomanica) and Turkmen maple (Acer turcomanicum) (302 Efimenko, N. N. (2017). Gnezdyashchiyesya ptitsy-nekrofagi gory Dushakerekdag v Tsentral'nom Kopetdage (Turkmenistan). Russkiy ornitologicheskiy zhurnal, Ekspress-vypusk 26(1439):1779–1781. Close ). A nest in the Shalkar-Nura Mountains (Kazakhstan) contained saxaul (Haloxylon ammodendron) branches (307 Fomin, V. Y., A. N. Filimonov, and L. V. Zhirnov (2016). Gnezdovaniye chërnogo grifa Aegypius monachus v Tsentral'nom Kazakhstane. Russkii ornitologicheskii zhurnal Ekspress-vypusk 25(1289):1868–1869. Close ). In Tuva Republic (Russia), nests were built using twigs of poplar (Populus), larch, and Siberian peashrub (Caragana arborescens) (n = 4; 280 Baranov, A. A. (1991). Chernyi grif. In Redkie i maloizuchennye ptitsy Tuvy. Izdatel'stvo Krasnoyarskogo Universiteta, Krasnoyarsk. pp.166–173. Close ). In Dobrogea (Romania), nests were sited on oak (Quercus), linden (Tilia), and pear (Pyrus) trees (18 Von Dombrowski, R. R. (1910). Ornis Romaniae; die Vogelwelt Rumänien’s systematisch und biologisch-geographisch beschrieben (Forsetzung). Buletinul Societății de Șciințe din București-România 19(1/2):1272–1463. Close ).

It has been suggested that use in nests of green plant material during the breeding season by birds, including the Cinereous Vulture, may prevent ectoparasites (308 Wimberger, P. H. (1984). The use of green plant material in bird nests to avoid ectoparasites. Auk 101(3):615–618. Close ). However, this hypothesis remains unstudied in the present species. Grass often grows in old (inactive) nests (67 Patrikeev, M. (2004). The Birds of Azerbaijan. Pensoft, Sofia, Bulgaria and Moscow, Russia. Close ).

Dimensions

The mean size of new nests was 91 cm in diameter and 39 cm in height (n = 7). In subsequent years the birds continue to accumulate material, achieving a mean diameter of 174 cm and height of 92 cm (n = 61) (205 Hiraldo, F. (1977). El buitre negro (Aegypius monachus monachus L.) en la península ibérica. Población, biología general, uso de recursos e interacciones con otras aves. Ph.D. thesis, Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain. Close ).

In the Lozoya Valley (Madrid, Spain) colony the maximum diameter of nests averaged 161.3 cm and mean height was 68.7 cm (n = 35) (309 de la Puente, J. (2007). Selección del hábitat de nidificación de buitre negro en pinares. In Manual de gestión del hábitat y de las poblaciones de buitre negro en España (R. Moreno-Opo and F. Guil, Editors), Dirección General para la Biodiversidad, Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, Madrid, Spain. pp. 53–57. Close ). Nests have a mean diameter of 1.6 m in Córdoba (n = 12) (310 Torres Esquivias, J. A., P. Jordano Barbudo, and J. Villasante Esquerra (1980). Estructura y dinámica temporal de una colonia de Buitre Negro, Aegypius monachus, en Sierra Morena Central (Córdoba). Boletín de la Estación Central de Ecología 9(17):67–72. Close ), and 1.66 m in the Sierra de San Pedro (Cáceres, Spain) and Umbría de Alcudia (Ciudad Real, Spain) (n = 126) (272 Moreno-Opo, R. (2007). El buitre negro. In Manual de gestión del hábitat y de las poblaciones de buitre negro en España (R. Moreno-Opo and F. Guil, Editors), Dirección General para la Biodiversidad, Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, Madrid, Spain. pp. 25–45. Close ). In Dobrogea (Romania), the largest nest had a diameter of 260 cm and height of 240 cm (18 Von Dombrowski, R. R. (1910). Ornis Romaniae; die Vogelwelt Rumänien’s systematisch und biologisch-geographisch beschrieben (Forsetzung). Buletinul Societății de Șciințe din București-România 19(1/2):1272–1463. Close ).

In the south-central Caucasus, nests measured 120–215 cm outer diameter, 40–85 cm inner diameter, 40–120 cm height, and 15–40 cm cup depth (n = 8; 235 Abuladze, A. (2013). Birds of Prey of Georgia. Materials towards a Fauna of Georgia. Issue VI. Institute of Zoology, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia. Close ); data from Azerbaijan are within the same range (67 Patrikeev, M. (2004). The Birds of Azerbaijan. Pensoft, Sofia, Bulgaria and Moscow, Russia. Close ). In Armenia, nests averaged 150.6 × 192.1 cm outer diameter, 51.9 × 55.4 cm inner diameter, 40.0‒130.0 cm height (mean 79.6 cm), and 4‒14 cm cup depth (mean 8.4 cm) (n = 14; 171 Adamian, M. S., and D. Klem (1999). Handbook of the Birds of Armenia. American University of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia. Close ), or 160 cm long, 134 cm wide, 53 cm high, 49 cm inner diameter, and 7 cm cup depth (n = 7) (222 Ghasabyan, M. (2012). The black vulture Aegypius monachus in Armenia. In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors), Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 121–125. Close ). In Ikh Nart (Mongolia), mean diameter was 174.2 cm ± 4.6 SE, mean height 75.5 cm ± 4.5, and mean volume 3.92 m³ ± 0.39 SE (n = 36) (311 Reading, R. P., S. Amgalanbaatar, D. Kenny, and B. Dashdemberel (2005). Cinereous Vulture nesting ecology in Ikh Nartyn Chuluu Nature Reserve, Mongolia. Mongolian Journal of Biological Sciences 3(1):13–19. Close ). In Tuva Republic (Russia), nest diameter and height ranged from 115–165 cm and 30–45 cm, respectively (n = 4; 280 Baranov, A. A. (1991). Chernyi grif. In Redkie i maloizuchennye ptitsy Tuvy. Izdatel'stvo Krasnoyarskogo Universiteta, Krasnoyarsk. pp.166–173. Close ).

The accumulation of material sometimes causes nests to collapse (271 Sintenis, G. M. (1878). Zur Naturgeschichte des Kuttengeiers (Vultur cinereus). Ornithologisches Centralblatt 3:146–147. Close , 16 Bernis, F. (1966). El Buitre negro (Aegypius monachus) en Iberia. Ardeola 12(1):45–99. Close , 312 Galán, R., C. Segovia, M. A. Martínez, E. Alés, R. Coronilla, and M. Barrera (2003). La colonia de buitre negro de Sierra Pelada. Quercus 211:27–33. Close , 272 Moreno-Opo, R. (2007). El buitre negro. In Manual de gestión del hábitat y de las poblaciones de buitre negro en España (R. Moreno-Opo and F. Guil, Editors), Dirección General para la Biodiversidad, Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, Madrid, Spain. pp. 25–45. Close , 281 Eliotout, B., P. Lécuyer, and O. Duriez (2007). Premiers résultats sur la biologie de reproduction du vautour moine Aegypius monachus en France. Alauda 75(3):253–264. Close ).

Microclimate

Information needed.

Maintenance or Reuse of Nests

Each pair uses a variable number of nests over time (171 Adamian, M. S., and D. Klem (1999). Handbook of the Birds of Armenia. American University of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia. Close , 309 de la Puente, J. (2007). Selección del hábitat de nidificación de buitre negro en pinares. In Manual de gestión del hábitat y de las poblaciones de buitre negro en España (R. Moreno-Opo and F. Guil, Editors), Dirección General para la Biodiversidad, Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, Madrid, Spain. pp. 53–57. Close , 166 Osipova, M., B. Appak, N. Bagrikova, M. Beskaravainy, N. Klestov, S. Kostin, and A. Tsvelykh (2012). The Black Vulture Aegypius monachus in Ukraine. In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors), Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 105–113. Close ); in Azerbaijan, it has been suggested that these are spaced 100‒500 m apart (67 Patrikeev, M. (2004). The Birds of Azerbaijan. Pensoft, Sofia, Bulgaria and Moscow, Russia. Close ). At the Lozoya Valley colony (Madrid, Spain), the number of nests per pair varied from one to nine, with a mean of 2.4 nests per pair during the period 1997‒2005 (309 de la Puente, J. (2007). Selección del hábitat de nidificación de buitre negro en pinares. In Manual de gestión del hábitat y de las poblaciones de buitre negro en España (R. Moreno-Opo and F. Guil, Editors), Dirección General para la Biodiversidad, Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, Madrid, Spain. pp. 53–57. Close ). In France, the mean continuous duration use of one nest by a pair was 3.5 years ± 2.04 SD, and there was a tendency to increased duration at a single nest with the pair’s breeding success (281 Eliotout, B., P. Lécuyer, and O. Duriez (2007). Premiers résultats sur la biologie de reproduction du vautour moine Aegypius monachus en France. Alauda 75(3):253–264. Close ).

Shape

Roundish elliptical to roundish oval (1 Glutz von Blotzheim, N., K. M. Bauer, and E. Bezzel (1971). Handbuch der Vögel Mitteleuropas. Band 4. Falconiformes. Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft, Frankfurt am Main, Germany. Close ).

Size

Across multiple populations, mean egg size is 90.3 × 70.2 mm (n = 166; 313 Hellebrekers, W. P. J. (1950). Measurements and Weights of Eggs of Birds on the Dutch List. E. J. Brill, Leiden, the Netherlands. Close ), 90.0 × 69.7 mm (n = 150; 314 Schönwetter, M. (1961). Handbuch der Oologie. Band 1. Lieferung 3. Akademie Verlag, Berlin, Germany. Close ), or 91.71 ± 4.02 × 69.72 ± 2.77 mm (n = 267) (282 Hiraldo, F. (1983). Breeding biology of the Cinereous Vulture. In Vulture Biology and Management (S. R. Wilbur and J. A. Jackson, Editors), University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, USA. pp. 197–213. Close ). In a sample from Dobrogea (Romania), mean egg size was 89.5 × 66.6 mm (n = 117; 18 Von Dombrowski, R. R. (1910). Ornis Romaniae; die Vogelwelt Rumänien’s systematisch und biologisch-geographisch beschrieben (Forsetzung). Buletinul Societății de Șciințe din București-România 19(1/2):1272–1463. Close ), in Spain mean egg size was 91.7 × 68.7 mm (n = 93; 1 Glutz von Blotzheim, N., K. M. Bauer, and E. Bezzel (1971). Handbuch der Vögel Mitteleuropas. Band 4. Falconiformes. Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft, Frankfurt am Main, Germany. Close ), in the southern Caucasus 84.0–96.3 × 64.5–72.5 mm (n = 61; 235 Abuladze, A. (2013). Birds of Prey of Georgia. Materials towards a Fauna of Georgia. Issue VI. Institute of Zoology, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia. Close ), and in Armenia 90.3 × 70.9 mm (n = 13; 171 Adamian, M. S., and D. Klem (1999). Handbook of the Birds of Armenia. American University of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia. Close ). A single egg from Azerbaijan measured 98 × 68 mm (67 Patrikeev, M. (2004). The Birds of Azerbaijan. Pensoft, Sofia, Bulgaria and Moscow, Russia. Close ). In the Nuratau Mountains (Uzbekistan), mean egg size is 91.04 (range 69.2–102.3) × 69.27 (range 51.4–75.9 mm) (n = 260) (303 Korshunova, E. N., and E. N. Korshunov (2006). The Black Vulture in the Nuratau Mountains, Uzbekistan. Raptors Conservation 5:50–60. Close ). Egg size is significantly different between the Iberian Peninsula and elsewhere in western Europe, and Asia (282 Hiraldo, F. (1983). Breeding biology of the Cinereous Vulture. In Vulture Biology and Management (S. R. Wilbur and J. A. Jackson, Editors), University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, USA. pp. 197–213. Close ).

Mass

Egg mass varies from 210.5 to 280.0 g (1 Glutz von Blotzheim, N., K. M. Bauer, and E. Bezzel (1971). Handbuch der Vögel Mitteleuropas. Band 4. Falconiformes. Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft, Frankfurt am Main, Germany. Close , 282 Hiraldo, F. (1983). Breeding biology of the Cinereous Vulture. In Vulture Biology and Management (S. R. Wilbur and J. A. Jackson, Editors), University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, USA. pp. 197–213. Close ). Mean egg mass in Armenia was 231.5 g (range 168–277, n = 13; 171 Adamian, M. S., and D. Klem (1999). Handbook of the Birds of Armenia. American University of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia. Close ). In the south-central Caucasus, egg mass ranged from 221.5–247.3 g (n = 36; 235 Abuladze, A. (2013). Birds of Prey of Georgia. Materials towards a Fauna of Georgia. Issue VI. Institute of Zoology, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia. Close ).

Volume

In the Nuratau Mountains (Uzbekistan), mean egg volume is 223.6 cm³ (range 93.2–287.3, n = 260) (303 Korshunova, E. N., and E. N. Korshunov (2006). The Black Vulture in the Nuratau Mountains, Uzbekistan. Raptors Conservation 5:50–60. Close ).

Eggshell Thickness

Thickness is estimated at 0.73 mm (314 Schönwetter, M. (1961). Handbuch der Oologie. Band 1. Lieferung 3. Akademie Verlag, Berlin, Germany. Close ).

Color and Surface Texture

Eggs are white (82.13%) or cream (17.83%) (282 Hiraldo, F. (1983). Breeding biology of the Cinereous Vulture. In Vulture Biology and Management (S. R. Wilbur and J. A. Jackson, Editors), University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, USA. pp. 197–213. Close ). Egg color rarely is bright yellowish red (1 Glutz von Blotzheim, N., K. M. Bauer, and E. Bezzel (1971). Handbuch der Vögel Mitteleuropas. Band 4. Falconiformes. Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft, Frankfurt am Main, Germany. Close ). An egg from the Shalkar-Nura Mountains (Kazakhstan) was dirty white with brown-yellow spots (307 Fomin, V. Y., A. N. Filimonov, and L. V. Zhirnov (2016). Gnezdovaniye chërnogo grifa Aegypius monachus v Tsentral'nom Kazakhstane. Russkii ornitologicheskii zhurnal Ekspress-vypusk 25(1289):1868–1869. Close ). Spotless white eggs are rare (4.26%). Spots are dark brown, dark and reddish chestnut, greenish gray, and violet. On any given egg, spots can be a single color (49.61%), two colors (41.86%), three colors (3.88%), or four (0.39%), with the commonest colors reddish and dark chestnut, and dark brown, violet, and greenish-gray spots scarce (282 Hiraldo, F. (1983). Breeding biology of the Cinereous Vulture. In Vulture Biology and Management (S. R. Wilbur and J. A. Jackson, Editors), University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, USA. pp. 197–213. Close ).

Clutch Size

Clutch size is usually a single egg and two-egg clutches are rare. One clutch of two eggs was found in a sample in museum collections (n = 264) (282 Hiraldo, F. (1983). Breeding biology of the Cinereous Vulture. In Vulture Biology and Management (S. R. Wilbur and J. A. Jackson, Editors), University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, USA. pp. 197–213. Close ). In the south-central Caucasus, one of just 503 clutch involved two eggs (235 Abuladze, A. (2013). Birds of Prey of Georgia. Materials towards a Fauna of Georgia. Issue VI. Institute of Zoology, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia. Close ). In Spain, one egg and one chick were seen in a nest from a total of 182 nests examined; a week later the egg had disappeared (282 Hiraldo, F. (1983). Breeding biology of the Cinereous Vulture. In Vulture Biology and Management (S. R. Wilbur and J. A. Jackson, Editors), University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, USA. pp. 197–213. Close ). In Türkiye, three nests of 20 had two-egg clutches (315 Elwes, H. J., and T. E. Buckley (1870). A list of the birds of Turkey. Ibis (2)6:59–77. Close ). In Babadag Forest (Romania), another nest with two eggs was found (n = 370) (271 Sintenis, G. M. (1878). Zur Naturgeschichte des Kuttengeiers (Vultur cinereus). Ornithologisches Centralblatt 3:146–147. Close ). On the island of Mallorca, during the period 1973‒2005 just one nest with two eggs was recorded, in 1975 (296 Mayol, J. (2012). El buitre negro Aegypius monachus en Mallorca (Islas Baleares, España). In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors), Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 69–78. Close ). In Nuratinsky Reserve (Uzbekistan), just one nest had two eggs (n = 100 clutches) (77 Sklyarenko, S. L., and T. Katzner (2012). The Black Vulture Aegypius monachus in central Asia. In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors), Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 136–144. Close ). In the Nuratau Mountains (Uzbekistan), two clutches of two eggs were found (n = 258) (303 Korshunova, E. N., and E. N. Korshunov (2006). The Black Vulture in the Nuratau Mountains, Uzbekistan. Raptors Conservation 5:50–60. Close ). In Grand Causses, France, one nest with two eggs was found (n = 83) (281 Eliotout, B., P. Lécuyer, and O. Duriez (2007). Premiers résultats sur la biologie de reproduction du vautour moine Aegypius monachus en France. Alauda 75(3):253–264. Close ), another with two eggs was found in the Sengilen Mountains, Altai-Sayan, Russia (n = 33) (81 Karyakin I. V., L. I. Konovalov, M. A. Grabovskiy, and E. G. Nikolenko (2009). Vultures of the Altai-Sayan Region. Raptors Conservation 15:37–65. Close ), and, a third nest with two eggs was recorded in Tuva Republic, Russia (n = 4; 280 Baranov, A. A. (1991). Chernyi grif. In Redkie i maloizuchennye ptitsy Tuvy. Izdatel'stvo Krasnoyarskogo Universiteta, Krasnoyarsk. pp.166–173. Close ).

Egg Laying

Information needed.

Incubation Period

Previously estimated at 50‒55 days (181 Akimov, M. P. (1940). [The colony of the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus L. in the nature reserve of the Crimea]. Trudy Krymskogo gos. zapovednika 2:217–227. (In Russian.) Close , 244 Fischer, A. B. (1969). Laboruntersuchungen und Freilandbeobachtungen zum sehvermögen und Verhalten von Altweltgeiern. Zoologische Jahrbücher. Abteilung für Systematik, Ökologie und Geographie der Tiere 96:81–132. Close , 2 Cramp, S., and K. E. L. Simmons, Editors (1980). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Volume 2. Hawks to Bustards. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ), but detailed information from Spain has revealed a wider incubation period. In eggs hatched in the wild, incubation periods of 50‒54 days (n = 5) and 58‒62 days (n = 2) have been recorded (282 Hiraldo, F. (1983). Breeding biology of the Cinereous Vulture. In Vulture Biology and Management (S. R. Wilbur and J. A. Jackson, Editors), University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, USA. pp. 197–213. Close ), and at the Lozoya Valley colony the mean incubation period was 59 days (range 51‒68, n = 25) (316 del Moral, J. C., and J. de la Puente (2017). Buitre negro – Aegypius monachus. In Enciclopedia Virtual de los Vertebrados Españoles (A. Salvador and M. B. Morales, Editors). Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, Madrid, Spain. http://www.vertebradosibericos.org/ Close ). In south-central Caucasus, the incubation period lasts 53 days (n = 2), 54 days (n = 16), 55 days (n = 6), or 56 days (n = 1) (235 Abuladze, A. (2013). Birds of Prey of Georgia. Materials towards a Fauna of Georgia. Issue VI. Institute of Zoology, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia. Close ).

Parental Behavior

The male and female take turns incubating, while the other individual forages. Continuous incubation varied between six hours and five days, and averaged 41.92 hours (282 Hiraldo, F. (1983). Breeding biology of the Cinereous Vulture. In Vulture Biology and Management (S. R. Wilbur and J. A. Jackson, Editors), University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, USA. pp. 197–213. Close ). Incubating adults were observed standing 9‒12 times during the daylight hours for periods shorter than ten minutes to turn the egg or preen (282 Hiraldo, F. (1983). Breeding biology of the Cinereous Vulture. In Vulture Biology and Management (S. R. Wilbur and J. A. Jackson, Editors), University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, USA. pp. 197–213. Close , 221 Appak, B. A. (2013). Sovremennoye sostoyaniye populyatsii chornogo grifa Aegypius monachus v Krymu. Russkiy ornitologicheskiy zhurnal Ekspress-vypusk 22(885):1488–1498. Close ).

Shell Breaking and Emergence

Information needed.

Parental Assistance and Disposal of Eggshells

Information needed.

Condition at Hatching

Semi-altricial and nidicolous (2 Cramp, S., and K. E. L. Simmons, Editors (1980). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Volume 2. Hawks to Bustards. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close , 317 Harrison, C. J. O., and P. Castell (2002). Bird Nests, Eggs and Nestlings of Britain and Europe with North Africa and the Middle East. Second revised edition. HarperCollins, London, UK. Close ).

Growth and Development

In Spain, differences in mass growth between nestlings has been observed (318 Suárez, F. (1973). Someros datos sobre crecimiento del Buitre Negro (Aegypius monachus). Ardeola 19(2):349. Close , 282 Hiraldo, F. (1983). Breeding biology of the Cinereous Vulture. In Vulture Biology and Management (S. R. Wilbur and J. A. Jackson, Editors), University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, USA. pp. 197–213. Close ); some grow rapidly but reach a low asymptote, whereas in others mass growth is slower during the first days and reach a higher asymptote sooner (282 Hiraldo, F. (1983). Breeding biology of the Cinereous Vulture. In Vulture Biology and Management (S. R. Wilbur and J. A. Jackson, Editors), University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, USA. pp. 197–213. Close ). At Ikh Nart (Mongolia), chicks grow linearly until prior to fledging; the mass growth curve until 1 September was highly significant (intercept 6.14 ± 0.28 SE, slope 0.05 ± 0.01 SE, R² 0.37, F 54.87, P <0.001, n = 107) (311 Reading, R. P., S. Amgalanbaatar, D. Kenny, and B. Dashdemberel (2005). Cinereous Vulture nesting ecology in Ikh Nartyn Chuluu Nature Reserve, Mongolia. Mongolian Journal of Biological Sciences 3(1):13–19. Close ).

In the Tien Shan Mountains (China), a hatchling born on 13 April, had a body mass of 160 g; by 17 May mass was 1.5 kg, on 14 June 5.65 kg, on 3 July 8.45 kg, and on 14 July 8.56 kg (228 MaMing, R., X. Liu, S. Wang, and D. Wu (2017). Breeding ecology of Cinereous Vulture in Tien-Shan Mountains, China. Raptors Conservation 35:252–259. Close ). In a sample from Mongolia of genetically sexed nestlings close to fledging, there was a tendency for males to have lower body mass (8,582.5 g ± 654.0 SD, n = 20) than females (9,010 g ± 953.8 SD, n = 26, P = 0.09) (319 Batbayar, N., S. Sukhchuluun, M. Fuller, and R. Watson (2014). Morphometrics of nestling cinereous vultures (Aegypius monachus) in Mongolia. Тооdog 1:21–25. Close ).

Brooding

During at least the first 20 days of life, adults ensure that the nestling is brooded for most of the time (16 Bernis, F. (1966). El Buitre negro (Aegypius monachus) en Iberia. Ardeola 12(1):45–99. Close , 10 Suetens, W., and P. van Groenendael (1966). Sobre ecología y conducta reproductora del Buitre Negro (Aegypius monachus). Ardeola 12(1):19–44. Close ). Adults also shade the chick, first using its body when the chick is still relatively small but with its open wings when the nestling is older (16 Bernis, F. (1966). El Buitre negro (Aegypius monachus) en Iberia. Ardeola 12(1):45–99. Close ). Nest attendance by the breeding pair varies with nestling age: one adult was present 99.32% of the time during the nestling’s first two months of life, 92.48% of the time at age 2‒3 months, and 75.19% when older than three months (282 Hiraldo, F. (1983). Breeding biology of the Cinereous Vulture. In Vulture Biology and Management (S. R. Wilbur and J. A. Jackson, Editors), University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, USA. pp. 197–213. Close ).

Feeding

The nestling is fed 2‒9 times per day during the first weeks of life (10 Suetens, W., and P. van Groenendael (1966). Sobre ecología y conducta reproductora del Buitre Negro (Aegypius monachus). Ardeola 12(1):19–44. Close ) or 1‒5 times a day over the first 1.5 months of life (221 Appak, B. A. (2013). Sovremennoye sostoyaniye populyatsii chornogo grifa Aegypius monachus v Krymu. Russkiy ornitologicheskiy zhurnal Ekspress-vypusk 22(885):1488–1498. Close ), but rarely twice a day before fledging (77 Sklyarenko, S. L., and T. Katzner (2012). The Black Vulture Aegypius monachus in central Asia. In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors), Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 136–144. Close ). In the Tien Shan Mountains (China), the number of daily feeds decreased from 4‒6 times per day in April‒May to 0‒1 in June‒July (228 MaMing, R., X. Liu, S. Wang, and D. Wu (2017). Breeding ecology of Cinereous Vulture in Tien-Shan Mountains, China. Raptors Conservation 35:252–259. Close ). Fledglings continue to be provisioned by their parents for several months after they fledge (77 Sklyarenko, S. L., and T. Katzner (2012). The Black Vulture Aegypius monachus in central Asia. In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors), Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 136–144. Close ).

The nestling is fed both solid food and watery liquids (10 Suetens, W., and P. van Groenendael (1966). Sobre ecología y conducta reproductora del Buitre Negro (Aegypius monachus). Ardeola 12(1):19–44. Close ). Young chicks receive small pieces of solid food in their bills. Feathered chicks peck the adult with the neck stretched upwards and body crouched down, moving the closed wings, to stimulate the adult to regurgitate food; the chick then takes food from the adult’s mouth or the floor of the nest (10 Suetens, W., and P. van Groenendael (1966). Sobre ecología y conducta reproductora del Buitre Negro (Aegypius monachus). Ardeola 12(1):19–44. Close ).

Polygynous breeding trios have been detected in Sierra Norte Natural Park (Sevilla, Spain). In 2006 the first known trio formed, in 2008 there were two, and in 2009 there were three. In all cases, at least one individual had a non-adult head pattern, but the adults shared incubation duties, and one or two nestlings was recorded in each of the nests. A genetic analysis identified that a male and two females formed one trio, with each female being the mother of one of the nestlings and the male fathering both of the nestlings (320 Luque, E., P. Dobado, and R. Arenas (2010). Reproducciones atípicas del buitre negro en Andalucía. Quercus 291:48–49. Close , 188 Dobado, P. M., F. J. Díaz, M. A. Díaz-Portero, L. García, E. Luque, J. Martín, P. Martínez, and R. M. Arenas (2012). El buitre negro Aegypius monachus en Andalucía (España). In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors). Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 13–37. Close , P. M. Dobado, personal communication). During 2015 a trio was observed at a nest in the Sierra de Hornachuelos (Córdoba, Spain), but breeding was not recorded (P. M. Dobado, personal communication).

Not reported.

In the Lozoya Valley (Madrid, Spain) colony, the mean period in the nest was 114 days (range 88‒137, n = 28) (316 del Moral, J. C., and J. de la Puente (2017). Buitre negro – Aegypius monachus. In Enciclopedia Virtual de los Vertebrados Españoles (A. Salvador and M. B. Morales, Editors). Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, Madrid, Spain. http://www.vertebradosibericos.org/ Close ). Also in Spain, fledglings were observed begging for food 80‒100 days after leaving the nest (282 Hiraldo, F. (1983). Breeding biology of the Cinereous Vulture. In Vulture Biology and Management (S. R. Wilbur and J. A. Jackson, Editors), University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, USA. pp. 197–213. Close ). In the Sierra de San Pedro (Cáceres, Spain), most of this dependency period was spent less than 5 km from the nest (n = 4; 162 Costillo, E. (2005). Biología y conservación de las poblaciones de buitre negro Aegypius monachus en Extremadura. Ph.D. thesis, University of Extremadura, Badajoz, Spain. Close ).

In the central Tien Shan Mountains (China), a juvenile returned to its nest during the first ten days after fledging, on 22 July, and remained within just 130 m radius of it; thereafter during August the young bird moved over an area of ​​30 km², which in September increased to 156 km², but still returned to the nest on a daily basis (228 MaMing, R., X. Liu, S. Wang, and D. Wu (2017). Breeding ecology of Cinereous Vulture in Tien-Shan Mountains, China. Raptors Conservation 35:252–259. Close ).

In a sample from the Sierra de San Pedro (Cáceres Province) colony (n = 57), fledging sex ratio (male: female) was 54.5, 50.0, and 65.0, in 1998, 1999, and 2000, respectively. No significant differences in sex ratio were found in any year (321 Villegas, A., J. M. Sánchez-Guzmán, E. Costillo, C. Corbacho, and R. Morán (2004). Productivity and fledging sex ratio in a Cinereous Vulture (Aegypius monachus) population in Spain. Journal of Raptor Research 38(4):361–366. Close ).

The immature stage generally lasts several years and extends from independence until they breed for the first time at 3‒7 years old (281 Eliotout, B., P. Lécuyer, and O. Duriez (2007). Premiers résultats sur la biologie de reproduction du vautour moine Aegypius monachus en France. Alauda 75(3):253–264. Close , 187 de la Puente, J., A. Bermejo, J. C. del Moral, and A. Ruiz (2011). Juvenile dispersion, dependence period, phylopatry and breeding maturity age of the cinereous vulture. In Ecología y conservación de las rapaces forestales europeas (I. Zuberogoitia and J. E. Martínez, Editors), Departamento de Agricultura de la Diputación Foral de Bizkaia, Bilbao, Spain. pp. 270–280. Close ).

In the Sierra de San Pedro (Cáceres, Spain), considering the date of independence as the first complete month the young remained more than 5 km from the nest, the mean age of independence was 217 days old (range 210‒239, n = 4; 162 Costillo, E. (2005). Biología y conservación de las poblaciones de buitre negro Aegypius monachus en Extremadura. Ph.D. thesis, University of Extremadura, Badajoz, Spain. Close ). At the Lozoya Valley colony (Madrid, Spain), fledglings became independent at a mean age of 202 days (range 160‒282, n = 4); the oldest juvenile did not gain independence until mid-February, coinciding with the start of the next breeding season and the young’s expulsion by the adults from the nest area (187 de la Puente, J., A. Bermejo, J. C. del Moral, and A. Ruiz (2011). Juvenile dispersion, dependence period, phylopatry and breeding maturity age of the cinereous vulture. In Ecología y conservación de las rapaces forestales europeas (I. Zuberogoitia and J. E. Martínez, Editors), Departamento de Agricultura de la Diputación Foral de Bizkaia, Bilbao, Spain. pp. 270–280. Close ).

Monitoring over 224‒486 days of Cinereous Vultures equipped with satellite transmitters (n = 4) as nestlings in the Lozoya Valley revealed that some individuals dispersed distances of 300‒350 km in 5‒10 days within their first year of life, whereas others moved away much more gradually; some returned periodically to their natal colony, but dispersal extended over much of western Iberia (187 de la Puente, J., A. Bermejo, J. C. del Moral, and A. Ruiz (2011). Juvenile dispersion, dependence period, phylopatry and breeding maturity age of the cinereous vulture. In Ecología y conservación de las rapaces forestales europeas (I. Zuberogoitia and J. E. Martínez, Editors), Departamento de Agricultura de la Diputación Foral de Bizkaia, Bilbao, Spain. pp. 270–280. Close ). In juveniles from Extremadura equipped with satellite transmitters (n = 4), there were birds that also dispersed long distances and others that moved long distances over short periods but returned to their natal colony (162 Costillo, E. (2005). Biología y conservación de las poblaciones de buitre negro Aegypius monachus en Extremadura. Ph.D. thesis, University of Extremadura, Badajoz, Spain. Close ). Cinereous Vultures fitted with GPS transmitters as fledglings in Cabañeros National Park, Ciudad Real, Spain (n = 9) and followed for 428‒984 days, spent longer distances from the natal colony during spring/summer than in autumn/winter (248 García-Herrera, J. J., and L. M. González García (2012). Patrones de movimiento y uso del espacio en la dispersión juvenil del buitre negro (Aegypius monachus). Ecología 24:73–93. Close ).