Conservation and Management

Near Threatened (370 BirdLife International (2018). Aegypius monachus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2018: e.T22695231A131935194. Close ). Previously also considered Near Threatened (2000‒2017), Unknown (1994‒1999), or Threatened (1988) (383 Collar, N. J., and P. Andrew (1988). Birds to Watch: the ICBP World Checklist of Threatened Birds. ICBP Technical Publication 8. International Council for Bird Preservation, Cambridge, UK. Close , 384 Stattersfield, A. J., and D. R. Capper, Editors (2000). Threatened Birds of the World. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain, and BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK. Close , 370 BirdLife International (2018). Aegypius monachus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2018: e.T22695231A131935194. Close ); see Demography and Populations for details of population status and trends.

The Cinereous Vulture is protected in all countries of the European Union under the Birds Directive of 2009, which required that member states classify Special Protection Areas for the species. Other legal instruments that protect Cinereous Vulture are the EU Habitats Directive, Bern Convention, Bonn Convention, Memorandum of Understanding on the Conservation of Migratory Birds of Prey in Africa and Eurasia, and CITES Convention. The species is legally protected in other countries where it breeds, except Mongolia and China. Threats to the species remain across its distribution, mainly due to accidental poisoning, habitat degradation, collision with wind turbines and power lines, electrocution, illegal killing, and human disturbance (157 Andevski, J., J. Tavares, N. P. Williams, R. Moreno-Opo, A. Botha, and J. Renell (2017). Flyway Action Plan for the Conservation of the Cinereous Vulture. CMS Raptors MOU Technical Publication No. 6. Coordinating Unit of the CMS Raptors MOU, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. Close ).

Habitat Loss and Degradation

Mediterranean oak forests have been transformed in parts of Spain into eucalyptus and pine plantations, or intensive cropland (160 Donázar, J. A., G. Blanco, F. Hiraldo, E. Soto-Largo, and J. Oria (2002). Effects of forestry and other land-use practices on the conservation of Cinereous Vultures. Ecological Applications 12(5):1445–1456. Close ). In Extremadura (Spain), between 1951 and 1984, ca. 89,000 ha of oak forest was replaced by eucalyptus trees. At Monfragüe, one of the world’s most important Cinereous Vulture colonies, eucalyptus began to be planted prior to its protection (218 Garzón Heydt, J. (1974). Contribución al estudio del status, alimentación y protección de las Falconiformes en España central. Ardeola 19(2):279–330. Close , 373 Meyburg, B.-U., and C. Meyburg (1978). Spanish refuge for Europe’s birds of prey. Oryx 14(4):337–342. Close ). In Sierra Pelada (Huelva Province), another breeding area, ca. 70% of the species’ natural habitat was lost and eucalyptus and pines were planted (160 Donázar, J. A., G. Blanco, F. Hiraldo, E. Soto-Largo, and J. Oria (2002). Effects of forestry and other land-use practices on the conservation of Cinereous Vultures. Ecological Applications 12(5):1445–1456. Close ).

Climate change may affect the distribution of the Cinereous Vulture. Bioclimatic models were developed using meteorological temperature and precipitation data obtained from Spain during the period 1961–1990. Under climate scenarios available for the 2000s, the models projected contractions in the current potential distribution in the Iberian Peninsula of 44–46% between 2041–2070 (385 Araújo, M. B., F. Guilhaumon, D. Rodrigues Neto, I. Pozo Ortego, and R. Gómez Calmaestra (2011). Impactos, vulnerabilidad y adaptación de la biodiversidad española frente al cambio climático. 2. Fauna de vertebrados. Dirección general de medio Natural y Política Forestal. Ministerio de Medio Ambiente y Medio Rural y Marino, Madrid, Spain. Close ). In a study carried out in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (China), models projected an increase in the current potential distribution in 2050 (386 Li, B., C. Liang, P. Song, D. Liu, W. Qin, F. Jiang, H. Gu, H. Gao, and T. Zhang (2023). Threatened birds face new distribution under future climate change on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (QTP). Ecological Indicators 150:110217 Close ).

Fires

Man-made fires are a cause of mortality among nestlings. In Sierra de Gata (Cáceres Province, Spain), totals of four and 14 nestlings were killed by fire in 1989 and 1991, respectively (387 Gentil, A., and A. Ventanas (1998). Proyecto de conservación del Buitre Negro Aegypius monachus en la Sierra de Gata (Cáceres). In Holarctic Birds of Prey, Proceedings of an International Conference (B.-U. Meyburg, R. D. Chancellor and J. J. Ferrero, Editors), World Working Group of Birds of Prey and Owls, Berlin, Germany and ADENEX (Asociación para la Defensa de la naturaleza y los recursos de Extremadura), Mérida, Spain. pp. 223‒229. Close ). In Sierra Pelada (Huelva Province, Spain), there were five fires during 1984‒2006 and a total of 17 nestlings was killed, or 1.5% of hatchlings, 3% of reproductive failures, and 14% of the total of dead chicks (388 Galán, R., A. J. De Andrés, and C. Segovia (1998). Effects of forest fires (1984-1992) on the cinereous vulture Aegypius monachus reproduction in Sierra Pelada (Huelva, SW Spain). In Holarctic Birds of Prey, Proceedings of an International Conference (B.-U. Meyburg, R. D. Chancellor and J. J. Ferrero, Editors), World Working Group of Birds of Prey and Owls, Berlin, Germany and ADENEX (Asociación para la Defensa de la naturaleza y los recursos de Extremadura), Mérida, Spain. pp. 231–238. Close , 389 Galán, R., C. Segovia, M. A. Martínez, and R. Coronilla (2007). Los incendios forestales y el buitre negro. In Manual de gestión del hábitat y de las poblaciones de buitre negro en España (R. Moreno-Opo and F. Guil, Editors), Dirección General para la Biodiversidad, Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, Madrid, Spain. pp. 307–312. Close ). In the Tierra de Pinares colony (Ávila Province, Spain), three nestlings were killed by a fire in 2022 (390 Marco, M. (2022). Incendio de Cebreros: mueren tres buitres negros con GPS. Quercus 439:40–41. Close ).

Shooting and Trapping

In the Mediterranean region, the ratio of the estimated number of Cinereous Vultures illegally killed to the global population (minimum/maximum) was 0.008 (0.004–0.013), and the ratio of the estimated number of individual birds illegally killed to the European population 0.027 (0.015–0.041). The country with the largest numbers of the species estimated to have been illegally killed/year (100‒250) was Spain (391 Brochet, A. L., W. van den Bossche, S. Jbour, P. K. Ndang’ang’a, V. Jones, I. Abdou, A. R. Al-Hmoud, N. G. Asswad, J. C. Atienza, I. Atrash, N. Barbara, K. Bensusan, T. Bino, C. Celada, S. I. Cherkaoui, J. Costa, B. Deceuninck, K. S. Etayeb, C. Feltrup-Azafzaf, J. Figelj, M. Gustin, P. Kmecl, M. Korbeti, D. Kotrošan, J. Mula Laguna, M. Lattuada, D. Leitẩo, P. Lopes, N. López, V. Lucic, T. Micol, A. Moali, Y. Perlman, N. Piludu, K. Putulin, G. Quaintenne, G. Ramadan-Jaradi, M. Ružić, A. Sandor, N. Sarajlić, D. Saveljic, R. D. Sheldon., T. Shialis, C. Thompson, A. Brunner, R. Grimmett, and S. Butchart (2016). Preliminary assessment of the scope and scale of illegal killing and taking of birds in the Mediterranean. Bird Conservation International 26(1):1‒28. Close ).

Cases of death or gunshot wounds continue to be recorded in Spain. The number of Cinereous Vultures admitted to wildlife rehabilitation centers due to this cause was 3.41% (n = 410) in 1990‒2005 (364 Moreno-Opo, R. (2007). Otros factores que causan mortalidad. In Manual de gestión del hábitat y de las poblaciones de buitre negro en España (R. Moreno-Opo, and F. Guil, Editors), Dirección General para la Biodiversidad, Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, Madrid. pp. 331–334. Close ). In Andalucía, 6% of cases of death or admission to wildlife rehabilitation centers (n = 87) during 2002‒2009 were due to shooting (188 Dobado, P. M., F. J. Díaz, M. A. Díaz-Portero, L. García, E. Luque, J. Martín, P. Martínez, and R. M. Arenas (2012). El buitre negro Aegypius monachus en Andalucía (España). In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors). Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 13–37. Close ). In birds of different species with gunshot wounds entered at rehabilitation centers in Castilla y León (Spain) during 1989‒2016 (n = 1,822), seven of them were Cinereous Vultures (392 Balmori, A. (2019). Endangered bird mortality by gunshots: still a current problem. Biodiversity and Conservation 28:2555–2564. Close ). In China, a vulture was shot in Yibin in 2003 (83 MaMing, R., and G. Xu (2015). Status and threats to vultures in China. Vulture News 68:3–24. Close ). In Turyanchay National Reserve (Azerbaijan), five Cinereous Vultures were shot during the period 2004‒2014 (393 Karimov, T. (2016). Limiting factors affecting reproductive and demographic indicators of Black Vulture (Aegypius monachus). Journal of Applied Environment and Biological Sciences 6(1):17–22. Close ).

Collection of eggs has probably affected several populations of the species. In Babadag forest (Romania), 377 eggs were collected by the Sintenis brothers during 1873‒1875 (18 Von Dombrowski, R. R. (1910). Ornis Romaniae; die Vogelwelt Rumänien’s systematisch und biologisch-geographisch beschrieben (Forsetzung). Buletinul Societății de Șciințe din București-România 19(1/2):1272–1463. Close ); J. Morales collected at least 200 eggs in Ávila Province (Spain) between 1928 and 1938 (16 Bernis, F. (1966). El Buitre negro (Aegypius monachus) en Iberia. Ardeola 12(1):45–99. Close ); and in Pakistan K. Eates took 52 eggs in the 1930s and early 1940s (300 Roberts, T. J. (1991). The Birds of Pakistan. Volume 1. Non-Passeriformes. Oxford University Press, Karachi, Pakistan. Close ). There are at least 496 eggs in American and European museum collections (282 Hiraldo, F. (1983). Breeding biology of the Cinereous Vulture. In Vulture Biology and Management (S. R. Wilbur and J. A. Jackson, Editors), University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, USA. pp. 197–213. Close , 394 Kiff, L. F., and D. J. Hough (1985). Inventory of Bird Egg Collections in North America, 1985. American Ornithologists’ Union and Oklahoma Biological Survey, Norman, OK, USA. Close ).

In Kazakhstan, the species often falls into traps placed for wolves near cattle carcasses (395 Zhatkanbayev, A. Z. (2011). Nablyudeniya po gnezdovoy biologii chornogo grifa na yugo-vostoke Kazakhstana. Pernatyye khishchniki i ikh okhrana 23:182–193. Close ). In Turyanchay National Reserve (Azarbaijan), two Cinereous Vultures were killed or injured by traps set for wolves and jackals, and five were captured for commercial purposes during 2004‒2014 (393 Karimov, T. (2016). Limiting factors affecting reproductive and demographic indicators of Black Vulture (Aegypius monachus). Journal of Applied Environment and Biological Sciences 6(1):17–22. Close ).

Pesticides and Other Contaminants/Toxics

Of Cinereous Vultures found dead during 2008–2019 in southeast France (n = 17), 76% were positive for anticoagulant rodenticides (396 Moriceau, M. A., S. Lefebvre, I. Fourel, E. Benoit, F. Buronfosse-Roque, P. Orabi, B. A. Rattner, and V. Lattard (2022). Exposure of predatory and scavenging birds to anticoagulant rodenticides in France: exploration of data from French surveillance programs. Science of The Total Environment 810:151291. Close ). A second-generation anticoagulant rodenticide (Difenacoum) was detected in the blood of 6.25% of Cinereous Vultures examined (n = 16) from Cataluña and Aragón (Spain) (397 Oliva-Vidal, P., J. M. Martínez, I. S. Sánchez-Barbudo, P. R. Camarero, M. À. Colomer, A. Margalida, and R. Mateo (2022). Second-generation anticoagulant rodenticides in the blood of obligate and facultative European avian scavengers. Environmental Pollution 315:120385. Close ).

Illegal Poison

Use of poisoned baits in the wild, generally in meat or carrion, is aimed to control predators on game estates or extensive livestock farms, but has massive and non-selective effects, and is the most important cause of unnatural death in the Cinereous Vulture in Spain (398 Cano, C., and M. A. Hernández (2005). Alarma ante los envenenamientos de águila imperial y buitre negro. Quercus 234:64–65. Close , 399 Hernández, M., and J. Oria (2007). Intoxicaciones y envenenamientos de buitres negros en España: situación y evolución. In Manual de gestión del hábitat y de las poblaciones de buitre negro en España (R. Moreno-Opo and F. Guil, Editors), Dirección General para la Biodiversidad, Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, Madrid, Spain. pp. 269–286. Close , 400 Skartsi, T., J. Elorriaga, and D. Vasilakis (2008). Population size, breeding rates and conservation status of Eurasian Black Vulture in the Dadia National Park, Thrace, NE Greece. Journal of Natural History 42:345–353. Close , 291 Azcárate, J. M., R. Carbonell, and F. J. Jiménez (2012). El buitre negro Aegypius monachus en Castilla y León (España). In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors), Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 41–51. Close , 188 Dobado, P. M., F. J. Díaz, M. A. Díaz-Portero, L. García, E. Luque, J. Martín, P. Martínez, and R. M. Arenas (2012). El buitre negro Aegypius monachus en Andalucía (España). In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors). Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 13–37. Close , 401 Mosqueda, I. (2012). El buitre negro Aegypius monachus en Castilla-La Mancha (España). In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors), Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 52–57. Close , 402 Cano, C., D. de la Bodega, P. Ayerza, and E. Mínguez (2016). El veneno en España. Evolución del envenenamiento de fauna silvestre (1992-2013). WWF y SEO/BirdLife, Madrid, Spain. Close ).

In Dadia National Park (Greece), poisoning caused the death of 56% of Cinereous Vultures examined (n = 25) (400 Skartsi, T., J. Elorriaga, and D. Vasilakis (2008). Population size, breeding rates and conservation status of Eurasian Black Vulture in the Dadia National Park, Thrace, NE Greece. Journal of Natural History 42:345–353. Close ). In Spain, 241 cases, involving 464 individuals, of poisoning were recorded during 1990‒2006. Most cases (98%) were intentional illegal poisonings. Of the 11 types of poison reported, three—carbofuran, aldicarb and strychnine—were implicated in 88% of cases (403 Hernández, M., and A. Margalida (2008). Pesticide abuse in Europe: effects on the cinereous vulture (Aegypius monachus) population in Spain. Ecotoxicology 17(4):264–272. Close ). Mortality from poisoning mainly affected (83%) adults in Spain (403 Hernández, M., and A. Margalida (2008). Pesticide abuse in Europe: effects on the cinereous vulture (Aegypius monachus) population in Spain. Ecotoxicology 17(4):264–272. Close ), versus 56% in Greece (400 Skartsi, T., J. Elorriaga, and D. Vasilakis (2008). Population size, breeding rates and conservation status of Eurasian Black Vulture in the Dadia National Park, Thrace, NE Greece. Journal of Natural History 42:345–353. Close ). Two vultures were found dead in Israel in 2015 due to poisoning (404 Hadad, E., P. Zduniak, and R. Yosef (2022). Sustaining increasing wintering raptor populations in central Israel: a 38 years perspective. Sustainability 14:12481. Close ). Two Cinereous Vultures were admitted to a wildlife rescue center in part of Nepal during 2017–2021: one was dead on arrival and the other died shortly after (405 Adhikari, B., S. Bhandari, K. Barale, S. Lamichhaneg, and S. C. Subedi (2022). Raptors at risk: attributes of mortality within an anthropogenic landscape in the Mid-Hills region of Nepal. Global Ecology and Conservation 38:e02258 Close ), with the cause of death being poisoning and unknown, respectively (B. Adhikari, personal communication).

The lethal effect of poison on breeding adults also extends to the offspring. Between 1997 and 1999, 12 adults and six nestlings died of poison in Sierra Pelada (Huelva Province); in 2000, nine poisoned adults and at least 19 egg or chick losses coincided with the death of an adult (406 Donázar, J. A., G. Blanco, and M. Carrete (2011). Conservación a gran escala del bosque mediterráneo: lecciones derivadas del seguimiento a largo plazo de una colonia de buitre negro. In Ecología y conservación de las rapaces forestales europeas (I. Zuberogoitia and J. E. Martínez, Editors), Departamento de Agricultura de la Diputación Foral de Bizkaia, Bilbao, Spain. pp. 314–323. Close ).

Lead Poisoning

Lead ammunition poisoning is a known threat to the species, which often ingests carrion of hunted ungulates and lagomorphs. One case of acute lead poisoning was recorded in Spain (403 Hernández, M., and A. Margalida (2008). Pesticide abuse in Europe: effects on the cinereous vulture (Aegypius monachus) population in Spain. Ecotoxicology 17(4):264–272. Close ). In a sample of Cinereous Vultures admitted to wildlife rehabilitation centers in south-central Spain during 2006‒2007, mean lead in blood levels was 70.07 ng/ml (n = 13), and 23% had lead levels above 200 ng/ml (407 Rodriguez-Ramos J., V. Gutiérrez, U. Höfle, R. Mateo, L. Monsalve, E. Crespo, and J. M. Blanco (2008). Lead in griffon and cinereous vultures in central Spain: correlations between clinical signs and blood lead levels. In Proceedings of the 2008 conference on ingestion of Lead from Spend Ammunition: Implications for Wildlife and Humans (R. T. Watson, M. Fuller, M. Pokras and W. G. Hunt, Editors), The Peregrine Fund, Boise, Idaho, USA. pp. 235–236. Close ).

Among Cinereous Vultures trapped in the field in Spain during 2016‒2017, the mean value ​​of lead in blood was 22 ng/ml (n = 18). Among those admitted to wildlife rehabilitation centers during 2006‒2017, mean lead blood value was 88.6 ng/ml (n = 5), and 20% of individuals had lead values >200 ng/ml (408 Descalzo, E., P. R. Camarero, I. S. Sánchez-Barbudo, M. Martinez-Haro, M. E. Ortiz-Santaliestra, R. Moreno-Opo, and R. Mateo (2021). Integrating active and passive monitoring to assess sublethal effects and mortality from lead poisoning in birds of prey. Science of The Total Environment 750: 142260. Close ).

In individuals found dead in South Korea during winter, two had lesions compatible with lethal lead poisoning, with 19.7 ppm dry weight and 34.1 ppm dry weight, and 14 had a potentially toxic level of lead with > 6 ppm dry weight in the liver or kidneys (n = 20) (366 Nam, D. H., and D. P. Lee (2009). Abnormal lead exposure in globally threatened Cinereous vultures (Aegypius monachus) wintering in South Korea. Ecotoxicology 18:225–229. Close ). In Cinereous Vultures found dead in the Korean Demilitarized Zone, 15% had liver lead levels >25 mg/g dry weight (n = 76) (409 Hur, S., J. H. Kang, G. P. Hong, J. G. Park, G. S. Han, D. P. Lee, D. H. Lee, D. H. Nam (2019). Lead exposure of Cinereous Vultures (Aegypius monachus) overwintering in the Republic of Korea. Korean Journal of Ornithology 2019.06:21–25. Close ). In the Sündiken and Türkmenbaba Dağları (Türkiye), mean lead levels in feathers of adults was 5.671 ± 3.884 μg/g dry weight (n = 53; 410 Yamac, E., Ozden, M., Kirazli, C. and S. Malkoc (2019). Heavy-metal concentrations in feathers of cinereous vulture (Aegypius monachus L.) as an endangered species in Turkey. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 26:833–843. Close ).

Pharmaceutical Products

Oral lesions caused by fungal and bacterial infections could indicate physiological alterations due to the chronic ingestion of pharmaceuticals via the consumption of medicated livestock carcasses (411 Blanco, G., A. Junza, and D. Barrón (2017). Food safety in scavenger conservation: Diet-associated exposure to livestock pharmaceuticals and opportunist mycoses in threatened Cinereous and Egyptian vultures. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 135:292–301. Close ). In a high-intensity farming area in central Spain (Segovia and Ávila provinces), 32.3% of dietary items in nests were pigs, and 25.8% were lagomorphs, whereas in a low-intensity farming area (Sierra Norte, Sevilla Province), 43.5% of the diet was represented by red deer (Cervus elaphus), wild boar (Sus scrofa), and European mouflon (Ovis aries). A higher (75%) proportion of Cinereous Vulture nestlings (n = 16) from the high-intensity area was affected by oral lesions, but the proportion with oral lesions (39%, n = 13) was lower in the low-intensity area (412 Blanco, G., A. Cortés-Avizanda, Ó. Frías, E. Arrondo, and J. A. Donázar (2019). Livestock farming practices modulate vulture diet-disease interactions. Global Ecology and Conservation 17:e00518 Close ).

Five Cinereous Vultures killed by diclofenac poisoning were found during February‒March 2012 at Jorbeer dump in Rajasthan (India) (413 Bohra, D. L. (2012). Vulture decline in Bikaner, Jorbeer, Rajasthan. Current Science 103(10):1141. Close ). The first case of diclofenac poisoning in the Cinereous Vulture was registered in a fledging found dead in a nest in 2020 in Cataluña (Spain). Concentrations of 26.5 ng/g in the liver and 51.4 ng/g in kidney were found (414 Herrero-Villar, M., É. Delepoulle, L. Suárez-Regalado, C. Solano-Manrique, C. Juan-Sallés, J. J. Iglesias-Lebrija, P. R. Camarero, F. González, E. Álvarez, and R. Mateo (2021). First diclofenac intoxication in a wild avian scavenger in Europe. Science of the Total Environment 782:146890. Close ).

Collisions with Stationary/Moving Structures or Objects

Known collisions with wind turbines are very few throughout the species’ range. In Spain two collisions have been reported, one each in Soria and Zaragoza provinces (415 Camiña, A. (2007). Energía eólica y buitre negro. In Manual de gestión del hábitat y de las poblaciones de buitre negro en España (R. Moreno-Opo and F. Guil, Editors), Dirección General para la Biodiversidad, Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, Madrid, Spain. pp. 312–321. Close ). More recently, 3,130 birds were found dead in wind farm collisions during 2001–2016 in Castilla y León region (Spain), of which three were Cinereous Vulture s (416 Balmori-de la Puente, A., and A. Balmori (2023). Flight Type and Seasonal Movements Are Important Predictors for Avian Collisions in Wind Farms. Birds 4:85–100. Close ). In Spain, 6,058 birds killed in wind farms were admitted to wildlife rehabilitation centers during the period 2008–2018, of which 19 corresponded to Cinereous Vulture (417 García Tapia, G., and N. López-Jiménez (2023). Informe sobre las causas de mortalidad no natural de avifauna en España. Proyecto LIFE Guardianes de la Naturaleza. SEO/BirdLife, Madrid. Close ). In Thrace (Greece), there is an estimated mortality rate of 0.02 Cinereous Vulture/turbine/year (418 Doutau, B., A. Kafkaletou-Diez, B. Cárcamo, D. Vasilakis, and E. Kret (2011). Impact Assessment of Wind Farms on Birds of Prey in Thrace. Annual Report August 2009–August 2010. Technical Report. WWF Greece, Athens, Greece. Close , 419 Vasilakis, D. P., D. P. Whitfield, S. Schindler, K. S. Poirazidis, and V. Kati (2016). Reconciling endangered species conservation with wind farm development: Cinereous vultures (Aegypius monachus) in south-eastern Europe. Biological Conservation 196:10–17. Close ).

Killing of birds of prey due to collision with power lines is a general concern. In northern Eurasia (Kazakhstan and Russia), during the period 1990‒2010, nine Cinereous Vultures were recorded dead under power lines and a rate of 0.029 birds per 10 km/power line was estimated (420 Karyakin, I. V. (2012). Birds of prey and power lines in northern Eurasia: what are the prospects for survival? Raptors Conservation 24:69–85. Close ). In central Mongolia, two Cinereous Vultures were killed by electrocution (total number of birds of different species, n = 388) and another two by collision (total number of birds of different species, n = 560) during 2007‒2009 (421 Amartuvshin, P., and S. Gombobaatar (2012). The assessment of high risk utility lines and conservation of globally threatened pole nesting steppe raptors in Mongolia. Ornis Mongolica 1:2–12. Close ). In Dundgovi Province (Mongolia), a Cinereous Vulture carcass was found near an electricity distribution line in 2010 (422 Dixon, A., R. Maming, A. Gunga, G. Purev-Ochir, and N. Batbayar (2013). The problem of raptor electrocution in Asia: Case studies from Mongolia and China. Bird Conservation International 23(4):520–529. Close ). In Turyanchay National Reserve (Azerbaijan), three individuals were killed at power lines during 2004‒2014 (393 Karimov, T. (2016). Limiting factors affecting reproductive and demographic indicators of Black Vulture (Aegypius monachus). Journal of Applied Environment and Biological Sciences 6(1):17–22. Close ).

In Spain, during 1990‒2006, 34 Cinereous Vultures were recorded as dead under power lines (423 Moreno-Opo, R. (2007). Electrocución y colisión en tendidos eléctricos. In Manual de gestión del hábitat y de las poblaciones de buitre negro en España (R. Moreno-Opo and F. Guil, Editors), Dirección General para la Biodiversidad, Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, Madrid, Spain. pp. 286–291. Close ). During the same period, 7% of admissions of birds of different species to wildlife rehabilitation centers were due to collision/electrocution of Cinereous Vulture s on power lines (n = 400) (423 Moreno-Opo, R. (2007). Electrocución y colisión en tendidos eléctricos. In Manual de gestión del hábitat y de las poblaciones de buitre negro en España (R. Moreno-Opo and F. Guil, Editors), Dirección General para la Biodiversidad, Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, Madrid, Spain. pp. 286–291. Close ). In Spain, 24 Cinereous Vultures were recorded dead due to electrocution during the period 1990–2019 (424 Grefa (2020). Libro Blanco de la electrocución en España. Análisis y propuestas. Madrid, Spain. Close ).

With respect to mortality due to collisions with vehicles, one Cinereous Vulture was recorded among a total of 10,288 birds killed by such means in Spain (425 López Redondo, J., and G. López Redondo (1992). Aproximación a los primeros resultados globales provisionales del PMVC. In I Jornadas para el Estudio y Prevención de la Mortalidad de Vertebrados en Carreteras. Tomo I. Coordinadora de Organizaciones de Defensa Ambiental, Madrid, Spain. pp. 22–34. Close ). In South Korea, the Cinereous Vulture road-kill rate across a period of 15 months (June 2018‒September 2019) was 0.02% (n = 5,812) (426 Kim, K., D. G. Woo, H. Seo, T. Park, E. G. Song, and T. Y. Choi (2019). Korea Road-Kill Observation System: The First Case to Integrate Road-Kill Data in National Scale by Government. Journal of Forest and Environmental Science 35(4):281–284. Close ). An immature was killed in 2016 near Palma de Mallorca airport (Spain) (427 Camiña, A., and J. Mayol (2017). Bird-strike of a Cinereous Vulture Aegypius monachus in the Balearic Islands, Spain. Vulture News 72:22–24. Close ).

Human/Research Impacts

The Cinereous Vulture is very sensitive to human disturbance while nesting, and this can have negative consequences for reproductive success (428 Moreno-Opo, R., A. Arredondo (2007). Molestias. In Manual de gestión del hábitat y de las poblaciones de buitre negro en España (R. Moreno-Opo and F. Guil, Editors), Dirección General para la Biodiversidad, Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, Madrid, Spain. pp. 291–306. Close ). In Extremadura (Spain), breeding failure was greater the shorter the distance of the nests from the nearest track (429 Morán-López, R., J. M. Sánchez, E. Costillo, C. Corbacho, and A. Villegas (2006). Spatial variation in anthropic and natural factors regulating the breeding success of the cinereous vulture (Aegypius monachus) in the SW Iberian Peninsula. Biological Conservation 130(2):169–182. Close ).

In Umbría of Alcudia (Ciudad Real), cork harvesting activities during May‒August in the vicinity of the nests caused disturbance and negatively affected nesting. Mean flight distance from the nest in the presence of people was 220.2 m (range 10–600, n = 23), and mean time of nest abandonment was 132 minutes (range 12–330, n = 22). As a result, breeding success in areas affected by cork harvesting was 0.55 chicks per pair (n = 51), whereas in a control area in the same general region it was 0.75 (n = 28, P = 0.06). Two nestlings died of dehydration in the cork harvesting area (430 Margalida, A., R. Moreno-Opo, B. E. Arroyo, and A. Arredondo (2011). Reconciling the conservation of endangered species with economically important anthropogenic activities: interactions between cork exploitation and the cinereous vulture in Spain. Animal Conservation 14:167–174. Close ).

A study in the Sierra de Guadarrama (Spain) showed a negative influence of road traffic noise on nests, whereby vulture nests were all sited outside areas in which road traffic Leq24h (24-hour daily average noise) levels were in excess of 40 dB (431 Ortiz-Urbina, E., L. Diaz-Balteiro, and C. Iglesias-Merchan (2020). Influence of Anthropogenic noise for predicting Cinereous Vulture nest distribution. Sustainability 12:503. Close ).

Aviation, helicopters, balloons, unmanned aerial systems, hang-gliders, and paragliders can disturb breeding Cinereous Vultures, but data are scarce. However, the species reduces flights near colonies in the presence of paragliders (432 Soto-Largo, E., C. Prada, B. Arroyo, J. M. García, E. Blanco, J. A. Durán, and M. García (2013). Estudio de viabilidad ambiental sobre la práctica de parapente y ala delta en la reserva del Valle de Iruelas. Informe técnico. Oikos Consultoría Ambiental, Ávila, España. Close , 433 Tobajas, J., F. Guil, and A. Margalida (2022). Effects of free-flight activities on wildlife: a poorly understood issue in conservation. Environmental Conservation 49(1):8–16. Close ).

Conservation Measures and Habitat Management

One of the most important conservation measures is strict protection of nesting colonies. The first important step in Spain in the species’ conservation was protection of the Monfragüe colony, in 1979 (434 Bangs, P. R. (1985). Monfragüe: a conservation success in Spain. Oryx 19(3):140–145. Close ).

At colonies in pine forests subject to logging, such as those in the Lozoya Valley (Madrid) and Valsaín (Segovia), forestry is planned in relation to the reproductive phenology of Cinereous Vulture, to minimize disturbance during breeding, with forestry activities undertaken outside the nesting season, i.e., the months of October‒December. To protect nests, no logging or other forestry work is carried out in pine forests within a minimum radius of 50‒100 m of each nest. Additionally, a sufficient number of mature trees is maintained for nesting (435 de la Puente, J. (2007). Recomendaciones de actuación para una gestión compatible. In Manual de gestión del hábitat y de las poblaciones de buitre negro en España (R. Moreno-Opo and F. Guil, Editors), Dirección General para la Biodiversidad, Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, Madrid, Spain. pp. 80–87. Close , 436 Vielva, J., and J. de la Puente (2007). Gestión sostenible de la colonia de buitre negro de la ZEPA del Alto Lozoya (Madrid). In Manual de gestión del hábitat y de las poblaciones de buitre negro en España (R. Moreno-Opo and F. Guil, Editors), Dirección General para la Biodiversidad, Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, Madrid, Spain. pp. 61–69. Close , 437 Donés, J., S. Redondo, V. García, and J. Oria (2007). Conservación de la colonia de buitre negro de los pinares de Valsaín (Segovia). In Manual de gestión del hábitat y de las poblaciones de buitre negro en España (R. Moreno-Opo and F. Guil, Editors), Dirección General para la Biodiversidad, Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, Madrid, Spain. pp. 77–80. Close ). In 2021, the Spanish governmental agency National Parks acquired Pinar de los Belgas, the site of the Cinereous Vulture breeding colony in the Lozoya Valley.

At colonies in oak and cork oak forests, the most important conservation measures are those aimed to make human activities such as cork exploitation or hunting compatible with conservation of colonies, by preventing such activity between February and August. Other conservation measures aim to maintain native trees in colonies, and eradicate eucalyptus and pines planted in these forests (438 Guil, F., R. Moreno-Opo, and A. San Miguel (2007). Recomendaciones y propuestas de actuación para una gestión compatible con la presencia de buitre negro. In Manual de gestión del hábitat y de las poblaciones de buitre negro en España (R. Moreno-Opo and F. Guil, Editors), Dirección General para la Biodiversidad, Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, Madrid, Spain. pp. 109–116. Close ). To reduce disturbance, human activities including cork harvesting should be minimized within 500 m of active nests (430 Margalida, A., R. Moreno-Opo, B. E. Arroyo, and A. Arredondo (2011). Reconciling the conservation of endangered species with economically important anthropogenic activities: interactions between cork exploitation and the cinereous vulture in Spain. Animal Conservation 14:167–174. Close ).

The species’ conservation also depends on maintenance of foraging areas. In Iberia, most populations obtain their food in large areas of open oak and cork oak forest (40‒50 trees/ha). A study of radio-tracked breeding adults (n = 14) at Sierra Pelada (Huelva) showed that their home ranges while foraging overlapped over a total of 592,527 ha around the colony (209 Carrete, M., and J. A. Donázar (2005). Application of central-place foraging theory shows the importance of Mediterranean dehesas for the conservation of the cinereous vulture, Aegypius monachus. Biological Conservation 126(4):582–590. Close ). The species’ diet depends largely on the maintenance of extensive livestock in open oak forests, and since joining the European Union, Spain has received funds to develop its livestock capacity (439 Moreno-Opo, R., A. San Miguel, and A. Camiña (2007). Introducción a la ganadería en España. In Manual de gestión del hábitat y de las poblaciones de buitre negro en España (R. Moreno-Opo and F. Guil, Editors), Dirección General para la Biodiversidad, Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, Madrid, Spain. pp. 200–221. Close ).

Lagomorphs are important in the diet of the Cinereous Vulture, especially rabbits in Iberia. Rabbits have undergone population variations since the 1950s related to viral diseases, but recovery programs for them have been established in Spain (440 Guil, F., S. Agudín, F. Silvestre, R. Higuero, and J. Inogés (2007). Caza menor y buitre negro. Fomento de las poblaciones de conejo de monte. In Manual de gestión del hábitat y de las poblaciones de buitre negro en España (R. Moreno-Opo and F. Guil, Editors), Dirección General para la Biodiversidad, Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, Madrid, Spain. pp. 224–229. Close ).

In 1998, the Antidote Program was started in Spain, with the participation of several NGOs and collaboration by regional authorities, with the aim of tackling poisoning. Environmental agents and civil guards also participate in the program, which is supported by specialized canine units (402 Cano, C., D. de la Bodega, P. Ayerza, and E. Mínguez (2016). El veneno en España. Evolución del envenenamiento de fauna silvestre (1992-2013). WWF y SEO/BirdLife, Madrid, Spain. Close ).

To minimize collisions and/or electrocutions on power lines in Spain, those with the highest incidence of bird kills, including the Cinereous Vulture, have been identified, to prioritize their modification via the installation of safe structures. To do this, European Union national and regional funds have been invested to upgrade tens of thousands of pylons (423 Moreno-Opo, R. (2007). Electrocución y colisión en tendidos eléctricos. In Manual de gestión del hábitat y de las poblaciones de buitre negro en España (R. Moreno-Opo and F. Guil, Editors), Dirección General para la Biodiversidad, Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, Madrid, Spain. pp. 286–291. Close ). In Russia, death of Cinereous Vultures due to electrocution with power lines can result in a fine of 100,000 rubles, which is intended to persuade the companies responsible to implement mitigation measures; however, fines are rarely enforced (441 Dwyer, J. F., I. V. Karyakin, J. R. Garrido López, and E. G. Nikolenko (2023). Avian electrocutions on power lines in Kazakhstan and Russia. Ardeola 70(1):3–27. Close ).

Feeding stations are now used across most of Europe to supplement the diet of scavengers, including the Cinereous Vulture (442 Cortés-Avizanda, A., G. Blanco, T. L. DeVault, A. Markandya, M. Z. Virani, J. Brandt, and J. A. Donázar (2016). Supplementary feeding and endangered avian scavengers: benefits, caveats, and controversies. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 14(4):191–199. Close ). In Dadia Forest (Greece), a feeding station was established in 1987 to increase food availability (325 Vlachos, C. G., D. E. Bakaloudis, and G. J. Holloway (1999). Population trends of Black Vulture Aegypius monachus in Dadia Forest, north-eastern Greece following the establishment of a feeding station. Bird Conservation International 9(2):113–118. Close ); at Dörtdivan (Türkiye) a facility was established in 2012 (443 Per, E., and Y. Ayhan (2020). Scavenger vertebrates of Dörtdivan vulture restaurant, Turkey. Gazi University Journal of Science 33(2):342–353. Close ); and in Ustyurt State Nature Reserve (Kazakhstan), three feeding stations were opened between 2016 and 2018 (444 Pestov, M. V., Z. E. Nurmukhambetov, A. T. Mukhashov, and V. A. Terentyev (2019). Results of the second phase of the project on supplemental feeding of vultures in Ustyurt State Nature Reserve in 2018, Kazakhstan. Raptors Conservation 38:179–194. Close ).

To establish new colonies of the species, it has been recommended to release adults to increase the probability of success, because of their higher survival but lower mobility than in juveniles (331 Rousteau, T., O. Duriez, R. Pradel, F. Sarrazin, T. David, S. Henriquet, C. Tessier, and J. B. Mihoub (2022). High long-term survival and asymmetric movements in a reintroduced metapopulation of Cinereous vultures. Ecosphere 13(2):e03862 Close ).

In Spain, since the start of the 2000s there has been an increasing trend of establishing authorization requirements for overflights of protected areas. In addition, both the average minimum flight height and the number of sites where flight has been regulated or prohibited have increased in protected areas (445 Tobajas, J., F. Guil, R. Moreno-Opo, and A. Margalida (2022). Regulation on protected areas overflight in Spain: current outlook and next steps. Parks 28(1):31–38. Close ). The following protected areas in Spain with breeding colonies of Cinereous Vulture are subject to overflight regulations: Parque Nacional de Monfragüe, Parque Nacional de la Sierra de Guadarrama, Parque Natural Sierra de Hornachuelos, Parque Natural Sierra Norte de Sevilla, Parque Natural Sierra de Andújar, Zona de Especial Protección para las Aves Alto Lozoya, Parque Regional de la Cuenca Alta del Manzanares, Reserva Natural Valle de Iruelas, Parque Regional Sierra de Gredos, Parque Natural de Sierra Morena, Parque Natural de la Sierra de San Vicente, Parque Natural de los Montes de Toledo, and Parque Natural Ríos del Tajo y Berrocales del Tajo (F. Guil, unpublished data).

Effectiveness of Measures

Due to conservation measures, the Spanish population increased from 206 pairs in 1973 (375 Hiraldo, F. (1974). Colonias de cría y censo de los Buitres Negros (Aegypius monachus) en España. Naturalia Hispanica 2:1‒31. Close ) to 2,548 pairs in 2017 (255 del Moral, J. C. (2017). El buitre negro en España, población reproductora en 2017 y método de censo. Censos 45. SEO/BirdLife, Madrid, Spain. Close ). Some colonies such as that in Monfragüe National Park appear to have reached their maximum size—312 pairs in 2007—as no further increase was recorded between 2007 and 2015 (446 Corbacho, C., M. Molina, and M. Mota (2019). A mathematical model to describe the demographic dynamics of long-lived raptor species. Biosystems 180:54–62. Close ). The Cinereous Vulture has recolonized Portugal from the nearby increasing Spanish populations; see Historical Changes to the Distribution.

Reintroduced populations in France, in the Grand Causses and southern Alps, started breeding four years after the first releases (156 Terrasse, M. (2006). Long term reintroduction projects of Griffon Gyps fulvus and Black Vultures Aegypius monachus in France. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Conservation and Management of Vulture Populations. 14–16 November 2005, Thessaloniki, Greece (D. C. Houston and S. E. Piper, Editors), Natural History Museum of Crete and WWF Greece, Athens, Greece. pp. 98–107. Close ), reaching 31 pairs (157 Andevski, J., J. Tavares, N. P. Williams, R. Moreno-Opo, A. Botha, and J. Renell (2017). Flyway Action Plan for the Conservation of the Cinereous Vulture. CMS Raptors MOU Technical Publication No. 6. Coordinating Unit of the CMS Raptors MOU, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. Close ). Reintroduced populations in Bulgaria, in the Eastern Balkan Mountains and in Vrachanski Balkan Nature Park, started breeding in 2021, reaching 6-7 pairs in total (447 Ivanov, I., , E. Stoynov, G. Stoyanov, E. Kmetova–Biro, J. Andevski, H. Peshev, S. Marin, J. Terraube, L. Bonchev, I. P. Stoev, J. Tavares, F. Loercher, M. Huyghe, Z. Nikolova, N. Vangelova, S. Stanchev, E. Mitrevichin, E. Tilova, and A. Grozdanov (2023). First results from the releases of Cinereous Vultures (Aegypius monachus) aiming at reintroducing the species in Bulgaria – the start of the establishment phase 2018–2022. Biodiversity Data Journal 11:e100521. Close ).

In Dadia National Park (Greece), the number of breeding pairs increased from six in 1987 to 21 in 1997 (325 Vlachos, C. G., D. E. Bakaloudis, and G. J. Holloway (1999). Population trends of Black Vulture Aegypius monachus in Dadia Forest, north-eastern Greece following the establishment of a feeding station. Bird Conservation International 9(2):113–118. Close ), but growth then ceased due to poisoning, with 19 pairs in 2005 (400 Skartsi, T., J. Elorriaga, and D. Vasilakis (2008). Population size, breeding rates and conservation status of Eurasian Black Vulture in the Dadia National Park, Thrace, NE Greece. Journal of Natural History 42:345–353. Close ).

The species has increased by ca. 35% in Ikh Nart (Mongolia) since its establishment as a nature reserve in 1996; the United Nations Development Program has designated the site a model protected area (448 Reading, R. P., J. D. Murdoch, S. Amgalanbaatar, S. Buyandelger, H. Davie, M. Jorgensen, D. Kenny, T. Munkhzul, G. Onloragcha, L. Rhodes, J. Schneider, T. Selenge, E. Stotz, and G. Wingard (2016). From “paper park” to model protected area: the transformation of Ikh Nart Nature Reserve, Mongolia. Parks 22.2:41–54. Close ).

In the eastern Spanish Pyrenees, 20 supplementary feeding sites for avian scavengers, including the Cinereous Vulture, receive human visitors from Spain and multiple European countries. Scavenger-based tourism provides recreational activities such as birdwatching, education, and/or photography; it has been estimated that these sites produce an average US $4.9 million annually, including US $2.53 million in revenue for the local human population (449 García-Jiménez, R., J. M. Pérez-García, A. Margalida, and Z. Morales-Reyes (2021). Avian scavengers' contributions to people: the cultural dimension of wildlife-based tourism. Science of the Total Environment 806:150419. Close , 450 García-Jiménez, R., Z. Morales-Reyes, J. M. Pérez-García, and A. Margalida (2021). Economic valuation of non-material contributions to people provided by avian scavengers: Harmonizing conservation and wildlife-based tourism. Ecological Economics 187:107088. Close ).