Demography and Populations

The Cinereous Vulture reaches sexual maturity when three years old. Nesting rates of territorial pairs varies from 66.0–92.5%, with the highest proportion of nest failures at the egg stage. The number of fledglings per egg-laying pair varies from 0.25–0.92, and the number of fledglings per territorial pair/year ranged between 0.43 and 0.95. Maximum life span and lifetime reproductive success are both unknown. Annual survival rates of 0.830 for juveniles, 0.877 for immature and subadults (2‒5 years age), and 0.918 for adults (six years or older) have been calculated.

Age At First Breeding

In the Grand Causses (France), the species first bred after two to seven years (mean 4.41 years ± 1.27 SD, n = 17); breeding was successful in two birds that were three years old (281 Eliotout, B., P. Lécuyer, and O. Duriez (2007). Premiers résultats sur la biologie de reproduction du vautour moine Aegypius monachus en France. Alauda 75(3):253–264. Close ). In the Lozoya Valley (Madrid), the Cinereous Vulture returned to the natal colony to breed in their 5‒6th calendar year (187 de la Puente, J., A. Bermejo, J. C. del Moral, and A. Ruiz (2011). Juvenile dispersion, dependence period, phylopatry and breeding maturity age of the cinereous vulture. In Ecología y conservación de las rapaces forestales europeas (I. Zuberogoitia and J. E. Martínez, Editors), Departamento de Agricultura de la Diputación Foral de Bizkaia, Bilbao, Spain. pp. 270–280. Close ).

Intervals Between Breeding

There is little information on intervals between breeding events. It has been suggested that the species can reproduce every two years (10 Suetens, W., and P. van Groenendael (1966). Sobre ecología y conducta reproductora del Buitre Negro (Aegypius monachus). Ardeola 12(1):19–44. Close ) but that some pairs breed every year (16 Bernis, F. (1966). El Buitre negro (Aegypius monachus) en Iberia. Ardeola 12(1):45–99. Close ). In western Sierra Morena (Spain), 56.52% pairs bred in two consecutive years (n = 23), 16.67% attempted to breed in three consecutive years (n = 12), but none laid in four consecutive years ( n = 5) (282 Hiraldo, F. (1983). Breeding biology of the Cinereous Vulture. In Vulture Biology and Management (S. R. Wilbur and J. A. Jackson, Editors), University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, USA. pp. 197–213. Close ).

There is information on the percentage of pairs that breed in Spain. In 2006, 84.8% of pairs laid in Alcudia (n = 99, Ciudad Real), 77.9% in the Lozoya Valley (n = 77, Madrid), 82.3% in the Sierra Pelada (n = 96, Huelva), and 81.8% in Valdemaqueda (n = 11, Madrid) (309 de la Puente, J. (2007). Selección del hábitat de nidificación de buitre negro en pinares. In Manual de gestión del hábitat y de las poblaciones de buitre negro en España (R. Moreno-Opo and F. Guil, Editors), Dirección General para la Biodiversidad, Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, Madrid, Spain. pp. 53–57. Close ). In Extremadura (Spain), the proportion of pairs that laid eggs was 92.5% (n = 562) in 2000 (161 Morán-López, R., J. M. Sánchez Guzmán, E. Costillo Borrego, and A. Villegas Sánchez (2006). Nest-site selection of endangered cinereous vulture (Aegypius monachus) populations affected by anthropogenic disturbance: present and future conservation implications. Animal Conservation 9(1):29–37. Close ). In the Sierra de Andújar (Jaén), in 1999 85.7% of pairs (n = 49) laid and in 2004 some 90.4% (n = 52) laid (322 Godino, A., M. A. Díaz-Portero, C. Montiel, J. M. Notario, and L. Cabrera (2012). El buitre negro Aegypius monachus en la Sierra de Andújar (Jaén, Andalucía, España). In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors), Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 58–68. Close ). On Mallorca, 66% bred during 1975‒2005 (n = 237), which increased to 83% during the last seven years of this period (296 Mayol, J. (2012). El buitre negro Aegypius monachus en Mallorca (Islas Baleares, España). In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors), Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 69–78. Close ).

Hatching Success

Reproductive failures occur mostly during incubation. Of a total of 657 failures in Andalucía during 2002‒2009, 80.8% were during incubation (188 Dobado, P. M., F. J. Díaz, M. A. Díaz-Portero, L. García, E. Luque, J. Martín, P. Martínez, and R. M. Arenas (2012). El buitre negro Aegypius monachus en Andalucía (España). In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors). Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 13–37. Close ).

Hatching success in the Nuratau Mountains (Uzbekistan) was negatively correlated with egg size (r = –0.53, n = 258) (303 Korshunova, E. N., and E. N. Korshunov (2006). The Black Vulture in the Nuratau Mountains, Uzbekistan. Raptors Conservation 5:50–60. Close ).

In the Lozoya Valley colony (Madrid), mean incubation failure during the period 1997‒2004 was 24.3% ± 6.1 SD (n = 391; 323 de la Puente, J. (2012). Fracaso reproductor en una población de buitres negros Aegypius monachus del centro de España. In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors), Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 270–281. Close ). In the Sierra de Andújar (Jaén), in 1999 the hatching rate was 93% (n = 42), but in 2004 it fell to 62% (n = 47), attributed to an increase in the frequency of immature or inexperienced birds entering the nesting population (322 Godino, A., M. A. Díaz-Portero, C. Montiel, J. M. Notario, and L. Cabrera (2012). El buitre negro Aegypius monachus en la Sierra de Andújar (Jaén, Andalucía, España). In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors), Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 58–68. Close ). On Mallorca, hatching success for the period 1973‒2005 was 56% (n = 162; 296 Mayol, J. (2012). El buitre negro Aegypius monachus en Mallorca (Islas Baleares, España). In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors), Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 69–78. Close ).

Breeding Success

The number of fledglings per egg-laying pair per year appears to be related to climatic conditions, nest site, the age of the breeding pair, egg volume, and colony density. Climatic conditions influenced breeding success in the year 2000 in colonies of Extremadura (Spain). Higher mean temperatures in summer were linked to greater reproductive failure in Monfragüe, whereas increased rainfall in summer was associated with higher reproductive success in Monfragüe and the Sierra de San Pedro (161 Morán-López, R., J. M. Sánchez Guzmán, E. Costillo Borrego, and A. Villegas Sánchez (2006). Nest-site selection of endangered cinereous vulture (Aegypius monachus) populations affected by anthropogenic disturbance: present and future conservation implications. Animal Conservation 9(1):29–37. Close ).

In Umbría de Alcudia (Ciudad Real), characteristics of successful nests (n = 50) were compared to those that failed (n = 39). Breeding success was higher in larger, less deteriorated nests in taller nesting trees, with greater scrub cover within a 100 m radius around the nest (324 Moreno-Opo, R., M. Fernández-Olalla, A. Margalida, Á. Arredondo, and F. Guil (2013). Influence of environmental factors on the breeding success of Cinereous Vultures Aegypius monachus. Acta Ornithologica 48(2):187–193. Close ). No significant differences in success were observed between nests on rocks and those on trees in Ikh Nart (Mongolia) (174 Reading, R. P., D. Kenny, J. Azua, T. Garrett, M. J. Willis, and T. Purevsuren (2010). Ecology of Eurasian Black Vultures (Aegypius monachus) in Ikh Nart Nature Reserve, Mongolia. Erforschung Biologischer Ressourcen der Mongolei 11:177–188. Close ).

In the Sierra de Andújar (Jaén), in 1999 reproductive success was 0.93, declining to 0.49 in 2004, probably due to an increase in the number of immature or inexperienced birds in the nesting population (322 Godino, A., M. A. Díaz-Portero, C. Montiel, J. M. Notario, and L. Cabrera (2012). El buitre negro Aegypius monachus en la Sierra de Andújar (Jaén, Andalucía, España). In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors), Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 58–68. Close ). In the Nuratau Mountains (Uzbekistan), breeding success was 0.58 and was positively correlated with egg volume (r = 0.89, n = 258) (303 Korshunova, E. N., and E. N. Korshunov (2006). The Black Vulture in the Nuratau Mountains, Uzbekistan. Raptors Conservation 5:50–60. Close ). In Cabañeros National Park, Spain, during the period 1998‒2004, there was a significant negative correlation between the number of fledglings and the distance between successful nests (210 Jiménez, J., and P. López-Izquierdo (2012). El buitre negro Aegypius monachus en el Parque Nacional de Cabañeros (Ciudad Real y Toledo, Castilla-La Mancha, España). In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors), Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 233–244. Close ).

According to Spanish national censuses, breeding success overall increased from 0.59 in 2006 (254 de la Puente, J., R. Moreno-Opo, and J. C. del Moral (2007). El buitre negro en España. Censo nacional (2006). Seguimiento de aves, 13. SEO/Birdlife, Madrid, Spain. Close ) to 0.70 in 2017 (255 del Moral, J. C. (2017). El buitre negro en España, población reproductora en 2017 y método de censo. Censos 45. SEO/BirdLife, Madrid, Spain. Close ).

The rate of breeding success varies across the this species’ range (all localities in Spain, unless otherwise stated): it is recorded as 0.25 in the Tien Shan Mountains (China) (228 MaMing, R., X. Liu, S. Wang, and D. Wu (2017). Breeding ecology of Cinereous Vulture in Tien-Shan Mountains, China. Raptors Conservation 35:252–259. Close ), 0.40‒0.95 in Dadia (Greece) (325 Vlachos, C. G., D. E. Bakaloudis, and G. J. Holloway (1999). Population trends of Black Vulture Aegypius monachus in Dadia Forest, north-eastern Greece following the establishment of a feeding station. Bird Conservation International 9(2):113–118. Close ), 0.5 on Mallorca (296 Mayol, J. (2012). El buitre negro Aegypius monachus en Mallorca (Islas Baleares, España). In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors), Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 69–78. Close ), 0.5 in Ikh Nart (Mongolia) (174 Reading, R. P., D. Kenny, J. Azua, T. Garrett, M. J. Willis, and T. Purevsuren (2010). Ecology of Eurasian Black Vultures (Aegypius monachus) in Ikh Nart Nature Reserve, Mongolia. Erforschung Biologischer Ressourcen der Mongolei 11:177–188. Close ), 0.51 in Alcudia (254 de la Puente, J., R. Moreno-Opo, and J. C. del Moral (2007). El buitre negro en España. Censo nacional (2006). Seguimiento de aves, 13. SEO/Birdlife, Madrid, Spain. Close ), 0.54 in Sierra Pelada (254 de la Puente, J., R. Moreno-Opo, and J. C. del Moral (2007). El buitre negro en España. Censo nacional (2006). Seguimiento de aves, 13. SEO/Birdlife, Madrid, Spain. Close ), 0.54‒0.78 in the middle Sakarya (Türkiye) (284 Kirazlı, C., and E. Yamaç (2013). Population size and breeding success of the Cinereous Vulture, Aegypius monachus, in a newly found breeding area in western Anatolia (Aves: Falconiformes). Zoology in the Middle East 59(4):289–296. Close ), 0.6‒0.7 in Lozoya Valley (254 de la Puente, J., R. Moreno-Opo, and J. C. del Moral (2007). El buitre negro en España. Censo nacional (2006). Seguimiento de aves, 13. SEO/Birdlife, Madrid, Spain. Close , 326 Gómez de la Peña, A., F. Horcajada, and J. A. Vielva (2012). El buitre negro Aegypius monachus en Madrid (España). In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors), Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 217–222. Close ), 0.62‒0.67 in Valdemaqueda (254 de la Puente, J., R. Moreno-Opo, and J. C. del Moral (2007). El buitre negro en España. Censo nacional (2006). Seguimiento de aves, 13. SEO/Birdlife, Madrid, Spain. Close , 326 Gómez de la Peña, A., F. Horcajada, and J. A. Vielva (2012). El buitre negro Aegypius monachus en Madrid (España). In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors), Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 217–222. Close ), 0.67‒0.73 in Köroğlu Dağları (Türkiye) (297 Arslan, Ş., and C. Kirazli (2022). Turkey’s largest Cinereous vulture population in a recently discovered breeding area in north-west Anatolia. Turkish Journal of Zoology 46(1):144–152. Close ), 0.69 in Sierra de San Pedro (327 Caldera, J. (2012). El buitre negro Aegypius monachus en Extremadura (España). In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors), Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 38–40. Close ), 0.78 in Castilla y León (291 Azcárate, J. M., R. Carbonell, and F. J. Jiménez (2012). El buitre negro Aegypius monachus en Castilla y León (España). In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors), Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 41–51. Close ), 0.76‒0.91 in Türkmenbaba Dağları (Türkiye) (328 Yamaç, E. (2018). Current evaluation of the Cinereous vulture (Aegypius monachus L.) population in Türkmenbaba mountain (Turkey). Biological Diversity and Conservation 11(3):190–196. Close ), and 0.92 in Extremadura (Spain) (161 Morán-López, R., J. M. Sánchez Guzmán, E. Costillo Borrego, and A. Villegas Sánchez (2006). Nest-site selection of endangered cinereous vulture (Aegypius monachus) populations affected by anthropogenic disturbance: present and future conservation implications. Animal Conservation 9(1):29–37. Close ). In the south-central Caucasus, mean breeding success during the period 1976‒2001 was 0.53 ± 15.2 SD, range 0.33‒0.83 (235 Abuladze, A. (2013). Birds of Prey of Georgia. Materials towards a Fauna of Georgia. Issue VI. Institute of Zoology, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia. Close ).

Estimates of Productivity

Estimates of the number of fledglings per territorial pair and year vary: it has been recorded as 0.43 in Alcudia (254 de la Puente, J., R. Moreno-Opo, and J. C. del Moral (2007). El buitre negro en España. Censo nacional (2006). Seguimiento de aves, 13. SEO/Birdlife, Madrid, Spain. Close ), 0.44 in Sierra de Andújar, Jaén (322 Godino, A., M. A. Díaz-Portero, C. Montiel, J. M. Notario, and L. Cabrera (2012). El buitre negro Aegypius monachus en la Sierra de Andújar (Jaén, Andalucía, España). In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors), Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 58–68. Close ), 0.45 in Sierra Pelada (254 de la Puente, J., R. Moreno-Opo, and J. C. del Moral (2007). El buitre negro en España. Censo nacional (2006). Seguimiento de aves, 13. SEO/Birdlife, Madrid, Spain. Close ), 0.47‒0.60 in Lozoya Valley (254 de la Puente, J., R. Moreno-Opo, and J. C. del Moral (2007). El buitre negro en España. Censo nacional (2006). Seguimiento de aves, 13. SEO/Birdlife, Madrid, Spain. Close , 326 Gómez de la Peña, A., F. Horcajada, and J. A. Vielva (2012). El buitre negro Aegypius monachus en Madrid (España). In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors), Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 217–222. Close ), 0.53‒0.55 in Valdemaqueda (254 de la Puente, J., R. Moreno-Opo, and J. C. del Moral (2007). El buitre negro en España. Censo nacional (2006). Seguimiento de aves, 13. SEO/Birdlife, Madrid, Spain. Close , 326 Gómez de la Peña, A., F. Horcajada, and J. A. Vielva (2012). El buitre negro Aegypius monachus en Madrid (España). In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors), Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 217–222. Close ), 0.54‒0.78 in the middle Sakarya (Türkiye) (284 Kirazlı, C., and E. Yamaç (2013). Population size and breeding success of the Cinereous Vulture, Aegypius monachus, in a newly found breeding area in western Anatolia (Aves: Falconiformes). Zoology in the Middle East 59(4):289–296. Close ), 0.63 in Extremadura (161 Morán-López, R., J. M. Sánchez Guzmán, E. Costillo Borrego, and A. Villegas Sánchez (2006). Nest-site selection of endangered cinereous vulture (Aegypius monachus) populations affected by anthropogenic disturbance: present and future conservation implications. Animal Conservation 9(1):29–37. Close ) and in Castilla y León (291 Azcárate, J. M., R. Carbonell, and F. J. Jiménez (2012). El buitre negro Aegypius monachus en Castilla y León (España). In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors), Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 41–51. Close ), 0.8 in Sierra de Andújar (322 Godino, A., M. A. Díaz-Portero, C. Montiel, J. M. Notario, and L. Cabrera (2012). El buitre negro Aegypius monachus en la Sierra de Andújar (Jaén, Andalucía, España). In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors), Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 58–68. Close ), and 0.95 in Tuva Republic (Russia) (81 Karyakin I. V., L. I. Konovalov, M. A. Grabovskiy, and E. G. Nikolenko (2009). Vultures of the Altai-Sayan Region. Raptors Conservation 15:37–65. Close ). In the south-central Caucasus, mean productivity during the period 1976‒2001 was 0.42 ± 14.8 SD, range 0.25‒0.71 (235 Abuladze, A. (2013). Birds of Prey of Georgia. Materials towards a Fauna of Georgia. Issue VI. Institute of Zoology, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia. Close ). According to Spanish national censuses, productivity increased from 0.51 (2006) (254 de la Puente, J., R. Moreno-Opo, and J. C. del Moral (2007). El buitre negro en España. Censo nacional (2006). Seguimiento de aves, 13. SEO/Birdlife, Madrid, Spain. Close ) to 0.63 (2017) (255 del Moral, J. C. (2017). El buitre negro en España, población reproductora en 2017 y método de censo. Censos 45. SEO/BirdLife, Madrid, Spain. Close ).

Lifetime Reproductive Success

Information needed.

There is no detailed information on life span in the wild. In captivity the species reaches 39 years old (1 Glutz von Blotzheim, N., K. M. Bauer, and E. Bezzel (1971). Handbuch der Vögel Mitteleuropas. Band 4. Falconiformes. Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft, Frankfurt am Main, Germany. Close ). It has been suggested that birds can reach 25.5 years old in the wild (329 Carey, J. R., and D. S. Judge. (2000). Longevity Records: Life Spans of Mammals, Birds, Amphibians, Reptiles, and Fish. Odense Monographs on Population Aging, No. 8. University Press of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark. Close ), but possibly the true life span is ca. 40 years (102 Gavashelishvili , A., M. McGrady, M. Ghasabian, and K. L. Bildstein (2012). Movements and habitat use by immature Cinereous Vultures (Aegypius monachus) from the Caucasus. Bird Study 59(4):449-462. Close ).

In wild-born Cinereous Vultures banded as nestlings (n = 47) in Grand Causses (France), monitored during 1992‒2008, survival estimates of 1‒3 years of age, four years of age, and five years of age or older were 0.848 ± 0.025 SE, 0.848 ± 0.026 SE, and 0.978 ± 0.018 SE, respectively (330 Mihoub, J. B., K. Prince, O. Duriez, P. Lecuyer, B. Eliotout, and F. Sarrazin (2014). Comparing the effects of release methods on survival of the Eurasian black vulture Aegypius monachus reintroduced in France. Oryx 48(1):106–115. Close ). In those banded in the Causses and Alps (France) during 1992–2016, annual survival rates for juveniles (first year), immatures and subadults (2‒5 years age), and adults (six years or older) were 0.830 ± 0.029 SE, 0.877 ± 0.016 SE, and 0.918 ± 0.01 SE, respectively (331 Rousteau, T., O. Duriez, R. Pradel, F. Sarrazin, T. David, S. Henriquet, C. Tessier, and J. B. Mihoub (2022). High long-term survival and asymmetric movements in a reintroduced metapopulation of Cinereous vultures. Ecosphere 13(2):e03862 Close ).

Diseases

Several types of disease have been identified in Cinereous Vultures but their effects are poorly known. In a sample of individuals (n = 106) received at rehabilitation centers in Castilla-La Mancha (Spain) between 1996 and 2005, detected salmonellosis (5.2%), Chlamidophila sp. (3.4%), aspergillosis, and candidiasis (5%) were all detected (332 Höfle, U., J. M. Blanco, and E. Crespo (2007). Patologías y enfermedades en el buitre negro. In Manual de gestión del hábitat y de las poblaciones de buitre negro en España (R. Moreno-Opo and F. Guil, Editors), Dirección General para la Biodiversidad, Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, Madrid, Spain. pp. 321–331. Close ), with Salmonella sp. detected in 7.4% of sampled nestlings (n= 27) in the Sierra de Andújar (Jaén Province, Spain) (333 Molina-Prescott, I., N. Ildefonso, C. Ballesteros, and R. J. De Miguel (2012). Estado sanitario de los pollos de buitre negro Aegypius monachus de la Sierra de Andújar (Jaén, Andalucía, España) en 2001–2002. In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors), Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 245–250. Close ).

Oral lesions were observed in 77.8% of sampled nestlings from Spain (n = 9), with 14 yeast species belonging to seven genera (Candida, Meyerozyma, Pichia, Yarrowia, Cryptococcus, Rhodotorula, and Trichosporon) were isolated from the lesions (334 Pitarch, A., C. Gil, and G. Blanco (2017). Oral mycoses in avian scavengers exposed to antibiotics from livestock farming. Science of the Total Environment 605–606:139–146. Close ).

An avian trichomonad, Trichomonas gypaetinii, was identifed in the upper digestive tract of Cinereous Vultures from Spain (335 Martínez-Díaz, R. A., F. Ponce-Gordo, I. Rodríguez-Arce, M. C. Martínez-Herrero, F. González González, R. A. Molina-López, and M. T. Gómez-Muñoz (2015). Trichomonas gypaetinii n. sp., a new trichomonad from the upper gastrointestinal tract of scavenging birds of prey. Parasitology Research 114(1):101–112. Close , 336 Martínez-Herrero, M. C., F. González-González, I. López-Márquez, F. J. García-Peña, J. Sansano-Maestre, R. A. Martínez-Díaz, F. Ponce-Gordo, M. M. Garijo-Toledo, and M. T. Gómez-Muñoz (2019). Oropharyngeal Trichomonosis Due to Trichomonas gypaetinii in a Cinereous Vulture (Aegypius monachus) Fledgling in Spain. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 55(1):153–157. Close ), and Mycoplasma gallinarum was detected in a bird from Córdoba Province (also Spain) (337 Poveda, J. B., J. Giebel , H. Kirchhoff, and A. Fernandez (1990). Isolation of mycoplasmas from a buzzard, falcons and vultures. Avian Pathology 19(4):779–783. Close ).

In the Russian Far East (Siberia), positive samples of West Nile virus were detected in samples of the species collected during 2002‒2004 (338 Ternovoĭ, V. A., E. V. Protopopova, S. G. Surmach, M. V. Gazetdinov, S. I. Zolotykh, A. M. Shestopalov, E. V. Pavlenko, G. N. Leonova, and V. B. Loktev (2006). The genotyping of the West Nile virus in birds in the far eastern region of Russia in 2002–2004. Molekuliarnaia Genetika, Mikrobiologiia i Virusologiia 30–35. Close ) and toxoplasmosis, caused by the apicomplexan Toxoplasma gondii, was detected in 25% of a sample of the species from Kazakhstan (n = 4; 339 Pak, S. M. (1976). Toxoplasmosis of Birds in Kazakhstan. Nauka, Alma Ata, Kazakhstan. Close ).

Oceanisphaera avium, a member of the bacterial family Aeromonadaceae, was isolated from the gut of Cinereous Vulture (340 Sung, H., H. S. Kim, J. Y. Lee, W. Kang, P. S. Kim, D. W. Hyun, E. J. Tak, M. J. Jung, J. H. Yun, M. S. Kim, N. R. Shin, T. W. Whon, J. R. Rho, S. D. Park, H. E. Shim, and J. W. Bae (2018). Oceanisphaera avium sp. nov., isolated from the gut of the cinereous vulture, Aegypius monachus. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 68:2068–2073. Close ). Actinomyces tangfeifanii (family Actinomycetaceae) was isolated from rectal swabs of the species from Tibet, China (341 Meng, X., X. H. Lai, S. Lu, S. Liu, C. Chen, D. Zhou, J. Yang, D. Jin, and Ji. Xu (2018). Actinomyces tangfeifanii sp. nov., isolated from the vulture Aegypius monachus. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutinary Microbiology 68(12):3701–3706. Close ).

Body Parasites

Ectoparasites

Phthiraptera Amblycera: Aquilogogus trachelioti (Spain; 342 Martín Mateo, M. P. (2002). Mallophaga Amblycera. Fauna Iberica. Volume 20. Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, CSIC, Madrid, Spain. Close , Türkiye; 343 Dik, B., and E. Yamaç (2008). Türkiye’de Bir Kara Akbaba’da (Aegypius monachus L.) ilk Colpocephalum trachelioti (Amblycera: Menoponidae). Türkiye Parazitoloji Dergisi 32(2):149–152. Close , 344 Dik, B., Naz, S., and M. S. Sajid (2022). Data on the Chewing Lice (Phthiraptera) Parasitizing the Accipitrid birds (Accipitriformes) in Turkey. Journal of Animal Health and Production 10(4):443–453. Close , Mongolia; 345 Mey, E., M. Stubbe, D. Lchagvasuren, and A. Stubbe (2016). Der Mönchsgeier Aegypius monachus (L., 1766) und seine Mallophagen (Insecta, Phthiraptera) in der Mongolei. Erforschung Biologischer Ressourcen der Mongolei 13:313–332. Close ), Laemobothrion vulturis (Germany; 346 Niethammer, G. (1938). Handbuech der Deutschen Vogelkunde. Band 2. Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft, Leipzig, Germany. Close , 347 Price, R. D., R. A. Hellenthal, R. L. Palma, K. P. Johnson, and D. H. Clayton (2003). The Chewing Lice: World Checklist and Biological Overview. Illinois Natural History Survey Special Publication 24, Champaign, IL, USA. Close , Spain; 342 Martín Mateo, M. P. (2002). Mallophaga Amblycera. Fauna Iberica. Volume 20. Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, CSIC, Madrid, Spain. Close , Mongolia; 345 Mey, E., M. Stubbe, D. Lchagvasuren, and A. Stubbe (2016). Der Mönchsgeier Aegypius monachus (L., 1766) und seine Mallophagen (Insecta, Phthiraptera) in der Mongolei. Erforschung Biologischer Ressourcen der Mongolei 13:313–332. Close , Türkiye; 348 Dik, B., E. Yamaç, and U. Uslu (2013). Studies on chewing lice (Phthiraptera: Amblycera, Ischnocera) species from domestic and wild birds in Turkey. Kafkas Universitesi Veteriner Fakultesi Dergisi 19(4):553–560. Close , 344 Dik, B., Naz, S., and M. S. Sajid (2022). Data on the Chewing Lice (Phthiraptera) Parasitizing the Accipitrid birds (Accipitriformes) in Turkey. Journal of Animal Health and Production 10(4):443–453. Close ), Neocolpocephalum turbinatum ( Germany; 346 Niethammer, G. (1938). Handbuech der Deutschen Vogelkunde. Band 2. Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft, Leipzig, Germany. Close , 347 Price, R. D., R. A. Hellenthal, R. L. Palma, K. P. Johnson, and D. H. Clayton (2003). The Chewing Lice: World Checklist and Biological Overview. Illinois Natural History Survey Special Publication 24, Champaign, IL, USA. Close ).

Phthiraptera Ischnocera: Aegypoecus brevicollis (347 Price, R. D., R. A. Hellenthal, R. L. Palma, K. P. Johnson, and D. H. Clayton (2003). The Chewing Lice: World Checklist and Biological Overview. Illinois Natural History Survey Special Publication 24, Champaign, IL, USA. Close ; Spain, 349 Pérez-Jiménez, J. M., M. D. Soler-Cruz, I. Ruiz-Martínez, M. Díaz-López, and J. E. Granados-Torres (1992). A redescription of Aegypoecus brevicollis (Burmeister, 1838) (Ischnocera: Philopteridae). Systematic Parasitology 22(3):215–219. Close ), Falcolipeurus monilis (Germany; 346 Niethammer, G. (1938). Handbuech der Deutschen Vogelkunde. Band 2. Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft, Leipzig, Germany. Close ), Falcolipeurus quadripustulatus (Germany; 347 Price, R. D., R. A. Hellenthal, R. L. Palma, K. P. Johnson, and D. H. Clayton (2003). The Chewing Lice: World Checklist and Biological Overview. Illinois Natural History Survey Special Publication 24, Champaign, IL, USA. Close , Spain, 350 Martín-Mateo, M. P., J. M. Aguirre, J. Gallego, and L. Colom (1984). Malófagos de rapaces españolas. 1. Estudio de especies de Falcolipeurus Bedford 1931 de Aegypidae. Eos 60:87–100. Close , India; 351 Tandan, B. K. (1964). Mallophaga from birds of the Indian subregion. Part VI Falcolipeurus Bedford. Proceedings of the Royal Entomological Society of London. Series B, Taxonomy 33: 173–180. Close , Afghanistan; 352 Tendeiro, J. (1988). Presence of Falcolipeurus quadripustulatus (Burmeister) (Mallophaga, Ischnocera) in Afghanistan. Garcia de Orta. Série de Zoologia 15(2):171–174. Close , Mongolia; 345 Mey, E., M. Stubbe, D. Lchagvasuren, and A. Stubbe (2016). Der Mönchsgeier Aegypius monachus (L., 1766) und seine Mallophagen (Insecta, Phthiraptera) in der Mongolei. Erforschung Biologischer Ressourcen der Mongolei 13:313–332. Close , Türkiye; 348 Dik, B., E. Yamaç, and U. Uslu (2013). Studies on chewing lice (Phthiraptera: Amblycera, Ischnocera) species from domestic and wild birds in Turkey. Kafkas Universitesi Veteriner Fakultesi Dergisi 19(4):553–560. Close , 344 Dik, B., Naz, S., and M. S. Sajid (2022). Data on the Chewing Lice (Phthiraptera) Parasitizing the Accipitrid birds (Accipitriformes) in Turkey. Journal of Animal Health and Production 10(4):443–453. Close ).

Diptera: Icosta meda (353 Theodor, O., and M. Costa (1975). A survey of the parasites of wild mammals and birds in Israel. Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, Jerusalem, Israel. Close ).

Endoparasites

Nematodes: Ascaridia columbae (China; 354 Zhang, S., Y. Bu, Y., G. Huang, Q. Wen, and L. Zhang (2012). A checklist of parasitic nematodes (Nematoda) from birds (Aves) in China. Zootaxa 3446(1):1–31. Close ), Cyrnea mansioni (Kyrgyzstan; 355 Ablasov, N. A., and N. T. Chibichenko (1962). Nematode fauna of wild birds in the Kirgiz SSR. Izvestiya Akademii Nauk Kirkizskoi SSR, Seriya Biologicheskikh Nauk 4(4):113–130. Close ), Porrocaecum depressum (Germany; 346 Niethammer, G. (1938). Handbuech der Deutschen Vogelkunde. Band 2. Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft, Leipzig, Germany. Close , 356 Li, L., D. I. Gibson, and L. P. Zhang (2016). An annotated catalogue of the ascaridoid nematode parasites of Chinese vertebrates. Systematic Parasitology 93:1–35. Close , India; 357 Chaturvedi, Y., and K. C. Kansal (1977). Check-list of Indian nematodes. Records of the Zoological Survey of India. Miscellaneous Publication Occasional Paper No. 5. Zoological Survey of India. Close ), Procyrnea tulostoma (Germany; 346 Niethammer, G. (1938). Handbuech der Deutschen Vogelkunde. Band 2. Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft, Leipzig, Germany. Close ), Taufikia iranica (Iran; 358 Dollfus, R. P. (1963). Cestodes d’Oiseaux I. Cestode d’Accipitriforme. Annales de Parasitologie 38(1):23–27. Close ), Tetrameres aegypii (China; 359 Wang, P. Q. (1976). Notes on some nematodes of the suborder Spirurata from Fujian, China. Acta Zoologica Sinica 22:393–402. Close , 354 Zhang, S., Y. Bu, Y., G. Huang, Q. Wen, and L. Zhang (2012). A checklist of parasitic nematodes (Nematoda) from birds (Aves) in China. Zootaxa 3446(1):1–31. Close ), Tetrameres shaanxiensis (China; 360 Jian, S. C. (1986). A new species of nematode of genus Tetrameres from the Cinereous Vulture (Aegypius monachus) (Spirurida: Tetrameridae). Acta Zootaxonomica Sinica 11:135–138. Close ), and Tropisurus aegypii (China; 359 Wang, P. Q. (1976). Notes on some nematodes of the suborder Spirurata from Fujian, China. Acta Zoologica Sinica 22:393–402. Close ).

Trematodes: Strigea falconis (361 Doss, M. A. (1968). Index-Catalogue of Medical and Veterinary Zoology. Subjects: Trematoda and Trematode Diseases. Part 10: Checklist of Generic, Specific, and Subspecific Names. N-Z. United States Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, USA. Close ).

Pentastomida: Hispania vulturis was recorded in the abdominal air sacs of Cinereous Vulture in Spain (362 Martínez, J., A. Criado-Fornelio, P. Lanzarot, M. Fernández-García, F. Rodríguez-Caabeiro, and S. Merino (2004). A new pentastomid from the black vulture. Journal of Parasitology 90(5):1103–1105. Close ).

Apicomplexa: Haemosporidian parasites of the genus Leucocytozoon were detected in 9.28% of nestlings examined in central Spain (n = 140) (363 Chakarov, N., and G. Blanco (2021). Blood parasites in sympatric vultures: role of nesting habits and effects on body condition. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18:2431. Close ). Plasmodium sp. lineage AEGMO03 was identified in a Cinereous Vulture from Nakhon Ratchasima, Thailand (148 Pornpanom, P., C. Kasorndorkbua, P. Lertwatcharasarakuld, and C. Salakij (2021). Prevalence and genetic diversity of Haemoproteus and Plasmodium in raptors from Thailand: Data from rehabilitation center. International Journal for Parasitology: Parasites and Wildlife 16:75–82. Close ).

Exposure

Nest collapse as a cause of failed breeding attempts has been recorded at several sites in Spain, such as Huelva Province (312 Galán, R., C. Segovia, M. A. Martínez, E. Alés, R. Coronilla, and M. Barrera (2003). La colonia de buitre negro de Sierra Pelada. Quercus 211:27–33. Close ), the Lozoya Valley (323 de la Puente, J. (2012). Fracaso reproductor en una población de buitres negros Aegypius monachus del centro de España. In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors), Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 270–281. Close ), Sierra de San Pedro, and Umbría de Alcudia (364 Moreno-Opo, R. (2007). Otros factores que causan mortalidad. In Manual de gestión del hábitat y de las poblaciones de buitre negro en España (R. Moreno-Opo, and F. Guil, Editors), Dirección General para la Biodiversidad, Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, Madrid. pp. 331–334. Close ). In France, 9% of breeding failures were due to nest collapse (n = 47 breeding failures) (281 Eliotout, B., P. Lécuyer, and O. Duriez (2007). Premiers résultats sur la biologie de reproduction du vautour moine Aegypius monachus en France. Alauda 75(3):253–264. Close ).

At nests on coastal cliffs on Mallorca, fledglings sometimes fall into the sea; indeed this was the greatest cause of mortality during 2009‒2021 (44.4%, n = 27) (365 Mayol, J. (2021). La fragilidad de los buitres insulares. Quercus 426:6–7. Close ).

During migration or winter, starvation can occur. In Primoriye (southeastern Siberia, Russia), mass death, probably caused by starvation, accounted for 70 and 60 individuals found dead during winters 1999/2000, and 2000/20001, respectively (112 Kalnitskaya, N., Yu. N. Glushchenko, and S. G. Surmach (2015). Chernyy grif Aegypius monachus v Primorskom Krae i ekologicheskie predposylki ego massovoy gibeli. Russkiy Ornitologicheskiy Zhurnal Ekspress-vypusk 24(1179):2953–2961. Close ). In a sample of birds found dead in South Korea during winter, severe emaciation was associated with 19 of the deaths (n = 20; 366 Nam, D. H., and D. P. Lee (2009). Abnormal lead exposure in globally threatened Cinereous vultures (Aegypius monachus) wintering in South Korea. Ecotoxicology 18:225–229. Close ).

Depredation

Failed breeding attempts occurred during incubation, and during chick-rearing; see Measures of Breeding Activity. Predation of eggs and nestling is another cause of mortality; see Predation.

Direct Human Impacts

The most common source of anthropogenic mortality is poisoning. Other sources were human disturbance of nesting birds, fires caused by humans, accidental trauma caused by collisions with wind turbines and power lines, and shooting; see Conservation and Management.

Individual Distance

See Degree of Sociality.

Territory Size

Cinereous Vulture is territorial at nesting sites; see Agonistic Behavior.

Home Range Size

Home range size varies with age, season, and between sites. In terms of seasonal variation, home range size increases during the breeding season and decreases in the non-breeding season. Home range size (95% kernel) of adults in the Sierra Pelada (Huelva) was larger during the breeding season (mean 1,354.3 km² ± 611.9 SD, n = 14) than during the non-breeding season (mean = 777.7 km² ± 383.6 SD, n = 6). During the former season, no significant differences were recorded in home range size between males and females (209 Carrete, M., and J. A. Donázar (2005). Application of central-place foraging theory shows the importance of Mediterranean dehesas for the conservation of the cinereous vulture, Aegypius monachus. Biological Conservation 126(4):582–590. Close ). In the Sierra de San Pedro (Cáceres), the mean size of the home range (95% kernel) of adults was 667.5 km² ± 713.9 SD (n = 6) in the breeding season and 155.2 km² ± 42.4 SD (n = 4 ) in the non-breeding season (162 Costillo, E. (2005). Biología y conservación de las poblaciones de buitre negro Aegypius monachus en Extremadura. Ph.D. thesis, University of Extremadura, Badajoz, Spain. Close ). Another study carried in the Sierra de San Pedro suggested a trend towards smaller average home range area during the incubation period (349 km²) compared to when nestlings are being raised (602 km², n = 3) (367 Corbacho, C., E. Costillo, and R. Morán (2012). Home range and foraging area of black vultures Aegypius monachus in south- western Spain: a preliminary analysis. In The Black Vulture: Status, Conservation and Studies. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus (Cordoba, Spain, 21–23 October 2004) (P. M. Dobado and R. Arenas, Editors), Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía, Córdoba, Spain. pp. 251–258. Close ).

In Mongolia, two studies with very different results on the size of the home range have been published. In one, home range size (minimum convex polygon) of two adults during the breeding season was 540.0–2,653.3 km² (113 Batbayar, N., R. Reading, T. Natsagdorj, and P. W. Kee (2008). Movement patterns of cinereous vultures in Mongolia. Falco 32:5–7. Close ). In another study, adults had a mean home range (minimum convex polygon) across the entire year of 43,301 km² ± 12,387 SE (n = 9, 119 Reading, R. P., J. Azua, T. Garrett, D. Kenny, H. Lee, W. K. Paek, N. Reece, P. Tsolmonjav, M. J. Willis, and G. Wingard (2020). Differential movement of adult and juvenile Cinereous Vultures (Aegypius monachus) (Accipitriformes: Accipitridae) in northeast Asia. Journal of Asia-Pacific Biodiversity 13:156–161. Close ). It is unknown if the very large home range size recorded in the second of these studies compared to the Spanish populations reflects the method used or was simply because the vultures foraged over larger areas.

Juveniles and immatures have larger home ranges than adults, which is probably due to their reduced experience and skill in scavenging, or because they are prospecting new areas.

During their stay in Mongolia prior to migration, juveniles had a mean home range of 76,209 km² ± 27,486 SE (n = 33) (119 Reading, R. P., J. Azua, T. Garrett, D. Kenny, H. Lee, W. K. Paek, N. Reece, P. Tsolmonjav, M. J. Willis, and G. Wingard (2020). Differential movement of adult and juvenile Cinereous Vultures (Aegypius monachus) (Accipitriformes: Accipitridae) in northeast Asia. Journal of Asia-Pacific Biodiversity 13:156–161. Close ). The same vultures during winter in South Korea had a mean home range of 6,127 km² ± 1,385 SE (n = 33; 119 Reading, R. P., J. Azua, T. Garrett, D. Kenny, H. Lee, W. K. Paek, N. Reece, P. Tsolmonjav, M. J. Willis, and G. Wingard (2020). Differential movement of adult and juvenile Cinereous Vultures (Aegypius monachus) (Accipitriformes: Accipitridae) in northeast Asia. Journal of Asia-Pacific Biodiversity 13:156–161. Close ). The mean size of the home range (95% kernel) of seven subadults in South Korea was 1,752 km² ± 244 SE (192 Kang, J. H., B. R. Hyun, I. K. Kim, H. Lee, J. K. Lee, H. S. Hwang, T. K. Eom, and S. J. Rhim (2019). Movement and home range of Cinereous Vulture Aegypius monachus during the wintering and summering periods in East Asia. Turkish Journal of Zoology 43:305–313. Close ). Juveniles (n = 3) from the Caucasus had a mean home range size (95% fixed kernel) pre-migration of 3,847 km² ± 3,120 SD, and 3,870 km² ± 2,541 SD in their wintering areas in Saudi Arabia and Iran (102 Gavashelishvili , A., M. McGrady, M. Ghasabian, and K. L. Bildstein (2012). Movements and habitat use by immature Cinereous Vultures (Aegypius monachus) from the Caucasus. Bird Study 59(4):449-462. Close ).

In Spain, the mean home range size (90% kernel) of juveniles banded as fledglings in Cabañeros National Park was 8,282 km² in males (n = 7) and 12,593 km² in females (n = 2) (368 Jiménez García-Herrera, J., and L. M. González García (2012). Patrones de movimiento y uso del espacio en la dispersión juvenil del buitre negro (Aegypius monachus). Ecología 24:73–93. Close ). The mean size of the home range (95% kernel) of juveniles in Castilla-La Mancha (Spain) was 3,307 km² (n = 12) (369 Castaño, J. P., J. F. Sánchez, M. A. Díaz-Portero, and M. Robles (2015). Dispersal and survival of juvenile black vultures Aegypius monachus in central Spain. Ardeola 62(2):351–361. Close ).

During their dependency period, juvenile Cinereous Vulture have small home ranges. In Türkiye, fledglings had a mean home range (90% kernel) of 356 km² ± 134 SE (n = 3) (101 Yamaç, E., and C. C. Bilgin (2012). Post-fledging movements of Cinereous Vultures Aegypius monachus in Turkey revealed by GPS telemetry. Ardea 100(2):149–156. Close ). Juveniles in Lozoya Valley (Spain) occupy a mean area of ​​189.4 km² (n = 6) (187 de la Puente, J., A. Bermejo, J. C. del Moral, and A. Ruiz (2011). Juvenile dispersion, dependence period, phylopatry and breeding maturity age of the cinereous vulture. In Ecología y conservación de las rapaces forestales europeas (I. Zuberogoitia and J. E. Martínez, Editors), Departamento de Agricultura de la Diputación Foral de Bizkaia, Bilbao, Spain. pp. 270–280. Close ). In juveniles from the Sierra de San Pedro (Spain), mean home range size was 340 km² (n = 4) (162 Costillo, E. (2005). Biología y conservación de las poblaciones de buitre negro Aegypius monachus en Extremadura. Ph.D. thesis, University of Extremadura, Badajoz, Spain. Close ).

Numbers

Global population size has been estimated at 9,657–12,306 breeding pairs (157 Andevski, J., J. Tavares, N. P. Williams, R. Moreno-Opo, A. Botha, and J. Renell (2017). Flyway Action Plan for the Conservation of the Cinereous Vulture. CMS Raptors MOU Technical Publication No. 6. Coordinating Unit of the CMS Raptors MOU, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. Close ) or 15,600‒21,000 mature individuals (370 BirdLife International (2018). Aegypius monachus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2018: e.T22695231A131935194. Close ). There are no specific estimates for Afghanistan and Iran, but the Chinese population has been estimated at 9,000‒15,000 individuals based in part on its distribution area (83 MaMing, R., and G. Xu (2015). Status and threats to vultures in China. Vulture News 68:3–24. Close ), and more recently to be at least 8,000 individuals, including overwintering birds (R. MaMing, personal communication).

There are counts of 2,548 pairs in Spain in 2017, including 36 pairs on Mallorca (Balearic Islands) (255 del Moral, J. C. (2017). El buitre negro en España, población reproductora en 2017 y método de censo. Censos 45. SEO/BirdLife, Madrid, Spain. Close ). Other populations include 30–40 pairs in Portugal (371 Terraube, J., J. Andevski, F. Loercher, and J. Tavares (2022). Population Estimates for the Five European Vulture Species across the Mediterranean: 2022 update. The Vulture Conservation Foundation, Arnhem, Netherlands. Close ), 53 pairs in France (371 Terraube, J., J. Andevski, F. Loercher, and J. Tavares (2022). Population Estimates for the Five European Vulture Species across the Mediterranean: 2022 update. The Vulture Conservation Foundation, Arnhem, Netherlands. Close ), one pair in Bulgaria (371 Terraube, J., J. Andevski, F. Loercher, and J. Tavares (2022). Population Estimates for the Five European Vulture Species across the Mediterranean: 2022 update. The Vulture Conservation Foundation, Arnhem, Netherlands. Close ), 31 pairs in Greece (371 Terraube, J., J. Andevski, F. Loercher, and J. Tavares (2022). Population Estimates for the Five European Vulture Species across the Mediterranean: 2022 update. The Vulture Conservation Foundation, Arnhem, Netherlands. Close ), 16 pairs in Azerbaijan (372 Karimov, T., and A. Mammadov (2019). The status of vultures Neophron percnopterus, Gypaetus barbatus, Gyps fulvus, Aegypius monachus (Accipitriformes) in Azerbaijan. Ukrainian Journal of Ecology 9(4):565–570. Close ), 15‒19 pairs in Ukraine (157 Andevski, J., J. Tavares, N. P. Williams, R. Moreno-Opo, A. Botha, and J. Renell (2017). Flyway Action Plan for the Conservation of the Cinereous Vulture. CMS Raptors MOU Technical Publication No. 6. Coordinating Unit of the CMS Raptors MOU, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. Close ), 80‒200 pairs in Türkiye (157 Andevski, J., J. Tavares, N. P. Williams, R. Moreno-Opo, A. Botha, and J. Renell (2017). Flyway Action Plan for the Conservation of the Cinereous Vulture. CMS Raptors MOU Technical Publication No. 6. Coordinating Unit of the CMS Raptors MOU, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. Close ), 63‒102 pairs in Russia (Caucasus) (157 Andevski, J., J. Tavares, N. P. Williams, R. Moreno-Opo, A. Botha, and J. Renell (2017). Flyway Action Plan for the Conservation of the Cinereous Vulture. CMS Raptors MOU Technical Publication No. 6. Coordinating Unit of the CMS Raptors MOU, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. Close ), 50 pairs in Georgia (157 Andevski, J., J. Tavares, N. P. Williams, R. Moreno-Opo, A. Botha, and J. Renell (2017). Flyway Action Plan for the Conservation of the Cinereous Vulture. CMS Raptors MOU Technical Publication No. 6. Coordinating Unit of the CMS Raptors MOU, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. Close ), 50 pairs in Armenia (157 Andevski, J., J. Tavares, N. P. Williams, R. Moreno-Opo, A. Botha, and J. Renell (2017). Flyway Action Plan for the Conservation of the Cinereous Vulture. CMS Raptors MOU Technical Publication No. 6. Coordinating Unit of the CMS Raptors MOU, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. Close ), 20‒100 pairs in Azerbaijan (157 Andevski, J., J. Tavares, N. P. Williams, R. Moreno-Opo, A. Botha, and J. Renell (2017). Flyway Action Plan for the Conservation of the Cinereous Vulture. CMS Raptors MOU Technical Publication No. 6. Coordinating Unit of the CMS Raptors MOU, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. Close ; 60‒80 pairs in late 1980s/early 1990s, 67 Patrikeev, M. (2004). The Birds of Azerbaijan. Pensoft, Sofia, Bulgaria and Moscow, Russia. Close ), 150‒300 pairs in Kazakhstan (157 Andevski, J., J. Tavares, N. P. Williams, R. Moreno-Opo, A. Botha, and J. Renell (2017). Flyway Action Plan for the Conservation of the Cinereous Vulture. CMS Raptors MOU Technical Publication No. 6. Coordinating Unit of the CMS Raptors MOU, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. Close ), 50‒60 pairs in Kyrgyzstan (157 Andevski, J., J. Tavares, N. P. Williams, R. Moreno-Opo, A. Botha, and J. Renell (2017). Flyway Action Plan for the Conservation of the Cinereous Vulture. CMS Raptors MOU Technical Publication No. 6. Coordinating Unit of the CMS Raptors MOU, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. Close ), 10‒100 pairs in Tajikistan (157 Andevski, J., J. Tavares, N. P. Williams, R. Moreno-Opo, A. Botha, and J. Renell (2017). Flyway Action Plan for the Conservation of the Cinereous Vulture. CMS Raptors MOU Technical Publication No. 6. Coordinating Unit of the CMS Raptors MOU, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. Close ), 30‒32 pairs in Turkmenistan (157 Andevski, J., J. Tavares, N. P. Williams, R. Moreno-Opo, A. Botha, and J. Renell (2017). Flyway Action Plan for the Conservation of the Cinereous Vulture. CMS Raptors MOU Technical Publication No. 6. Coordinating Unit of the CMS Raptors MOU, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. Close ), 80‒120 pairs in Uzbekistan (157 Andevski, J., J. Tavares, N. P. Williams, R. Moreno-Opo, A. Botha, and J. Renell (2017). Flyway Action Plan for the Conservation of the Cinereous Vulture. CMS Raptors MOU Technical Publication No. 6. Coordinating Unit of the CMS Raptors MOU, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. Close ), 1,760 pairs in China (157 Andevski, J., J. Tavares, N. P. Williams, R. Moreno-Opo, A. Botha, and J. Renell (2017). Flyway Action Plan for the Conservation of the Cinereous Vulture. CMS Raptors MOU Technical Publication No. 6. Coordinating Unit of the CMS Raptors MOU, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. Close ), 5,000‒7,000 pairs in Mongolia (157 Andevski, J., J. Tavares, N. P. Williams, R. Moreno-Opo, A. Botha, and J. Renell (2017). Flyway Action Plan for the Conservation of the Cinereous Vulture. CMS Raptors MOU Technical Publication No. 6. Coordinating Unit of the CMS Raptors MOU, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. Close ), and 88 pairs in Russia (Altai-Sayan) (81 Karyakin I. V., L. I. Konovalov, M. A. Grabovskiy, and E. G. Nikolenko (2009). Vultures of the Altai-Sayan Region. Raptors Conservation 15:37–65. Close ).

Trends

The number of breeding pairs declined in Europe from the 1850s, reaching a nadir in the 1960s. For example, in Babadag (Romania) there were 100 pairs in 1911, 10‒12 pairs in 1950, and just one pair in 1964 (1 Glutz von Blotzheim, N., K. M. Bauer, and E. Bezzel (1971). Handbuch der Vögel Mitteleuropas. Band 4. Falconiformes. Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft, Frankfurt am Main, Germany. Close ). At Monfragüe (Cáceres Province, Spain), in 1965 and 1973 there were ca. 45 pairs and 18 pairs, respectively (16 Bernis, F. (1966). El Buitre negro (Aegypius monachus) en Iberia. Ardeola 12(1):45–99. Close , 218 Garzón Heydt, J. (1974). Contribución al estudio del status, alimentación y protección de las Falconiformes en España central. Ardeola 19(2):279–330. Close , 373 Meyburg, B.-U., and C. Meyburg (1978). Spanish refuge for Europe’s birds of prey. Oryx 14(4):337–342. Close ). More recently, the number of breeding pairs in Azerbaijan declined 27.3% between 2004 and 2016 (372 Karimov, T., and A. Mammadov (2019). The status of vultures Neophron percnopterus, Gypaetus barbatus, Gyps fulvus, Aegypius monachus (Accipitriformes) in Azerbaijan. Ukrainian Journal of Ecology 9(4):565–570. Close ).

The species’ critical situation in Europe has been reversed in large part due to the conservation measures taken in Spain, where there was an annual increase of 25.7% in the number of breeding pairs between 1973 and 2011, declining to a 13.3% increase between 1990 and 2011 (374 Moreno-Opo, R., and A. Margalida (2014). Conservation of the Cinereous Vulture Aegypius monachus in Spain (1966–2011): a bibliometric review of threats, research and adaptive management. Bird Conservation International 24(2):178–191. Close ). The Spanish population was estimated at 206 pairs in 1973 (375 Hiraldo, F. (1974). Colonias de cría y censo de los Buitres Negros (Aegypius monachus) en España. Naturalia Hispanica 2:1‒31. Close ), 365 pairs in 1986 (376 González, L. M., J. L. González, J. Garzón, and B. Heredia (1986). Estatus y evolución de la población de Buitre Negro (Aegypius monachus) en la península Ibérica (1972-1986). In Resúmenes de la V Conferencia Internacional sobre Rapaces Mediterráneas. Évora, Portugal. Close ), 774 pairs in 1989 (377 González, L. M. (1990). Situación de las poblaciones de Águila Imperial y Buitre Negro en España. Quercus 58:16–22. Close ), 1,027 pairs in 1992–1993 (378 Sánchez, J. J. (1998). The recovery of the Black Vulture Aegypius monachus in Spain. In Proceedings of the International Symposium on the Black Vulture in SE Europe and adjacent regions, Dadia, Greece, 15‒16 September 1993 (E. Tewes, J. J. Sánchez, B. Heredia and D. Bijleveld van Lexmond, Editors). Black Vulture Conservation Foundation-Frankfurt Zoological Society, Palma de Mallorca, Spain. pp. 89–99. Close ), 1,845 pairs in 2006 (309 de la Puente, J. (2007). Selección del hábitat de nidificación de buitre negro en pinares. In Manual de gestión del hábitat y de las poblaciones de buitre negro en España (R. Moreno-Opo and F. Guil, Editors), Dirección General para la Biodiversidad, Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, Madrid, Spain. pp. 53–57. Close ), 2,068 pairs in 2011 (374 Moreno-Opo, R., and A. Margalida (2014). Conservation of the Cinereous Vulture Aegypius monachus in Spain (1966–2011): a bibliometric review of threats, research and adaptive management. Bird Conservation International 24(2):178–191. Close ), and 2,548 pairs in 2017 (255 del Moral, J. C. (2017). El buitre negro en España, población reproductora en 2017 y método de censo. Censos 45. SEO/BirdLife, Madrid, Spain. Close ). On the island of Mallorca (Balearic Islands, Spain), the number of breeding pairs increased from at least 3 pairs in 1955 (379 Von Westernhagen, W. (1957). Zur Vogelwelt Mallorcas. Bonner Zoologische Beiträge 8(2):178–192. Close ), 4 pairs in 1972 (184 Mayol, J. (1977). Contribución al conocimiento del Buitre Negro (Aegypius monachus) en Mallorca. Bolletí de la Societat d'Història Natural de les Balears 22:150–178. Close ), 7 pairs in 1982 (380 Tewes, E., and J. Mayol (1993). La recuperació del voltor negre a Mallorca. Document Técnic de Conservació No. 21. Conselleria d’Agricultura y Pesca del Govern Balear. Close ), 10 pairs in 2001 (71 Sánchez, J. J. (2003). Buitre Negro, Aegypius monachus. In Atlas de las Aves Reproductoras de España (R. Martí and J. C. del Moral, Editors), Dirección General de Conservación de la Naturaleza-Sociedad Española de Ornitología, Madrid, Spain. pp. 170–171. Close ), 16 pairs in 2011 (381 Muntaner, J. (2012). Buitre negro (Aegypius monachus). Ardeola 59(2):425. Close ), to 36 in 2017 (255 del Moral, J. C. (2017). El buitre negro en España, población reproductora en 2017 y método de censo. Censos 45. SEO/BirdLife, Madrid, Spain. Close ).

The population increase in Spain is due in large part to active conservation measures, but other factors may have also been responsible, including the availability of food. During 1973‒2011, the number of pairs did not correlate with estimates of carcasses of cows, sheep, goats and pigs available in the wild, or with the number of rabbits hunted. Traditionally, hunters take only the head of wild ungulates they kill, whereas the body is left for scavengers. The number of red deer (Cervus elaphus) and wild boar (Sus scrofa) hunted multiplied by 13.5 after 1973, and there was a significant positive correlation between the number of Cinereous Vulture pairs and the number of wild boar and deer that were hunted (r = 0.94, P <0.001). Regarding threats to the species, no correlation was observed between the number of pairs and the number of birds poisoned, or with the number of vultures received by wildlife rehabilitation centers (374 Moreno-Opo, R., and A. Margalida (2014). Conservation of the Cinereous Vulture Aegypius monachus in Spain (1966–2011): a bibliometric review of threats, research and adaptive management. Bird Conservation International 24(2):178–191. Close ).

There have been successful reintroduction projects in France and in several regions of Spain; see Historical Changes to the Distribution.

Density-dependent processes may be responsible for regulating vulture populations. Breeding pairs at each colony overlap in their foraging areas at distances greater than 50 km. Increasing the density of breeding pairs in colonies can lead to competition for food and a reduction in available carrion, with consequent effects on productivity. A study of 2,162 breeding attempts at four Sierra Morena colonies (Spain) during the period 2002‒2010 has shown that productivity is subject to density-dependent processes at both the colony and nest scales, explained by interference competition. There appears to be a trade-off between the benefits of colonialism and the disadvantages of close nesting between pairs, potentially mediated by aggressive interactions between pairs and the benefits of sharing information, which makes colonies widely spaced (382 Fernández-Bellón, D., A. Cortés-Avizanda, R. Arenas, and J. A. Donázar (2016). Density-dependent productivity in a colonial vulture at two spatial scales. Ecology 97(2):406–416. Close ).