Habitat

Occupies jack pine forests, black spruce‒tamarack bogs, and muskeg in the eastern part of the breeding range and drier aspen and mixed aspen‒conifer forests in the western part of the breeding range. Migratory stopover habitat is highly variable, primarily wet, open deciduous forest with dense herbaceous or woody understory, occasionally in urban parks, scrublands, and cultivated fields— poorly known. Overwintering habitat, also poorly known, often consists of early successional stages with lower canopy and dense understory.

Habitat use is highly variable across the breeding range. In the eastern portion of the breeding range, it often occupies poorly drained, mature black spruce (Picea mariana) forest with nutrient-poor soils (73 Welsh, D. A., and S. C. Lougheed (1996). Relationships of bird community structure and species distributions to two environmental gradients in the northern boreal forest. Ecography 19(2):194–208. Close ). Bogs are usually ≤ 40 ha in size in the Great Lakes region (74 U.S. Department of Agriculture (2000). Population viability assessment, U.S. Forest Service: National forests in Minnesota and Wisconsin, January 19–21, 2000. Notes from the Population Viability Assessment Panel Group, 3 Non-forest birds. Close ). They also breed in drier, jack pine (Pinus banksiana) forests in parts of Quebec (27 Saulnier, M-C. (2011). Biologie de la reproduction de la Paruline à gorge grise (Oporornis agilis) dans les pinèdes grises du Lac-Saint-Jean, Canada. M.S. thesis, Université du Québec à Chicoutimi, Chicoutimi, QC, Canada. Close , 75 Blais, V. (2014). Caractérisation et utilisation de l'habitat par la Paruline à gorge grise (Oporornis agilis) dans les pinèdes grises du Lac-Saint-Jean, Québec. M.S. thesis, Université du Québec à Chicoutimi, Chicoutimi, QC, Canada. Close ), Ontario (76 Venier, L. A., and J. L. Pearce (2007). Boreal forest landbirds in relation to forest composition, structure, and landscape: implications for forest management. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 37(7):1214–1226. Close ) and around the Great Lakes (77 Robbins, S.D. (1991). Wisconsin Birdlife. The University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, Wisconsin. Close ). Western breeders are found in drier, more open forests dominated by aspen and poplar (78 Schmiegelow, F. K. A., C. S. Machtans, and S. J. Hannon (1997). Are boreal birds resilient to forest fragmentation? An experimental study of short-term community responses. Ecology 78(6):1914–1932. Close , 79 Hobson, K. A., and E. Bayne (2000). The effects of stand age on avian communities in aspen-dominated forests of central Saskatchewan, Canada. Forest Ecology and Management 136:121–134. Close ). It has been observed in 15 different forest types, wetland bogs, and along the wooded margins of sedge meadows during the summer in the United States (80 Kudell-Ekstrum, J. (2002). Conservation assessment for Connecticut Warbler (Oporornis agilis). U.S.D.A. Forest Service, Eastern Region, Milwaukee, WI, USA. Close ).

Habitat in northwestern Ontario is typical of the breeding habitat throughout most of breeding range: wet areas with black spruce and tamarack (Larix laricina), undergrowth and ground cover composed of mosses (Sphagnum), alder (Alnus), dogwood (Cornus), Labrador tea (Ledum), bog rosemary (Andromeda), bog laurel (Kalmia), and leatherleaf (Chamaedaphne) (81 Elder, D. H. (1991). Breeding habitat of the Connecticut Warbler in the Rainy River District. Ontario Birds 9:84–86. Close ). The species has a strong association with black spruce and tamarack on poorly drained, wet, nutrient-poor soils with a deep organic component in Ontario (82 Welsh, D. A., and L. A. Venier (1996). Binoculars and satellites: Developing a conservation framework for boreal forest wildlife at varying scales. Forest Ecology and Management 85(1–3):53–65. Close ), occasionally breeding at margins of damp woodlands or logged-over areas with low, thick undergrowth composed of raspberry (Rubus) vines, tangled brush, and fallen trees (83 Kells, W. L. (1889). Nesting of the Connecticut Warbler. Oologist 14:49–51. Close ). Also found in drier, mature mixed-woods forest in north-central Ontario with jack pine, spruce, trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides), paper birch (Betula papyrifera), northern white cedar (Thuja occidentalis), and tamarack (76 Venier, L. A., and J. L. Pearce (2007). Boreal forest landbirds in relation to forest composition, structure, and landscape: implications for forest management. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 37(7):1214–1226. Close ). In eastern Quebec, where blueberry harvesting has become an important industry, Connecticut Warbler was nearly restricted to residual jack pine forests surrounding blueberry fields; areas of timber harvesting within these forests were also used; it voided areas with lichens and mosses, as well as blueberry fields that offered no cover or protection against predators (75 Blais, V. (2014). Caractérisation et utilisation de l'habitat par la Paruline à gorge grise (Oporornis agilis) dans les pinèdes grises du Lac-Saint-Jean, Québec. M.S. thesis, Université du Québec à Chicoutimi, Chicoutimi, QC, Canada. Close ).

Connecticut Warbler breeds in or along the border of wet, deciduous forests in the western part of its breeding range, especially drier, well-drained upland sites (84 Griscom, L., A. Sprunt and E. M. Reilly (Editors) (1979). The Warblers of America. Revised edition. Doubleday & Co., New York, NY, USA. Close , 73 Welsh, D. A., and S. C. Lougheed (1996). Relationships of bird community structure and species distributions to two environmental gradients in the northern boreal forest. Ecography 19(2):194–208. Close ). Never far from an aspen‒poplar (Populus) forest or open areas in woods or margins of small meadows in the Prairie Provinces of Canada (85 Salt, W. R. (1973). Alberta vireos and wood warblers: families Vireonidae and Parulidae, distribution and breeding. Edmonton Provincial Museum and Archives of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada. Close ); it is common in pure aspen and mixed-woods dominated by aspen with shrub layer composed of aspen, rose (Rosa sp.), dogwood (Cornus stolonifera), beaked hazelnut (Corylus cornuta), Saskatoon serviceberry (Amelanchier alnifolia), and chokecherry (Prunus virginianum) in Saskatchewan (86 Johns, B. W. (1993). The influence of grove size on bird species richness in aspen parklands. Wilson Bulletin 105:256–264. Close , 79 Hobson, K. A., and E. Bayne (2000). The effects of stand age on avian communities in aspen-dominated forests of central Saskatchewan, Canada. Forest Ecology and Management 136:121–134. Close ). It is rare but present in American elm (Ulmus americana) forests in northeastern Saskatchewan with average elm tree density of 166/ha, average diameter-at-breast-height (DBH) of elms 50 cm, 22% shrub cover, 91% forb cover, and 73% fern cover (87 Wiebe, K. L., and S. Shadick (2011). Birds associated with American Elm forests in northeastern Saskatchewan. Blue Jay 69:161–167. Close ). Abundant in mixed-wood forests of Alberta with trembling aspen, balsam poplar (Populus balsamifera), white spruce (Picea glauca), black spruce, and understory dominated by fruiting shrubs (Rosa), alder, and willow (Salix) (78 Schmiegelow, F. K. A., C. S. Machtans, and S. J. Hannon (1997). Are boreal birds resilient to forest fragmentation? An experimental study of short-term community responses. Ecology 78(6):1914–1932. Close ). In central Alberta, Connecticut Warbler occurred more often in aspen stands versus mixed-wood stands (88 Nixon, A. E. (2011). Interactions between the forest tent caterpillar (Malacosoma disstria Hübner) and its natural enemies: the effects of forest composition and implications for outbreak spread. M.S. thesis. University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada. Close ). The canopy composition was dominated by aspen (> 80%) with less than 10% conifers, whereas mixed-wood stands had greater than 50% aspen and at least 20% white spruce; both stand types shared a common understory comprised of green alder (Alnus crispa), Saskatoon serviceberry, and willows (88 Nixon, A. E. (2011). Interactions between the forest tent caterpillar (Malacosoma disstria Hübner) and its natural enemies: the effects of forest composition and implications for outbreak spread. M.S. thesis. University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada. Close ).

Often in pure stands of trembling aspen, but also mixed-woods comprised of aspen and spruce in British Columbia, forests with dense understory and high canopy with stand age varying from young to mature to older forests (89 Cooper, J. M. and S. M. Beauchesne (2004). Connecticut Warbler. In Identified Wildlife Management Strategy (K. Paige, Editor). Ministry of Environment and Climate Change Strategy, BC, Canada. Close ). Found in open forest, dense forest and muskeg/riparian areas (90 Leverkus, S. E. R., S. D. Fuhlendorf, M. Geertsema, R. D. Elmore, D. M. Engle, and K. A. Baum (2017). A landscape disturbance matrix for conserving biodiversity. Journal of Ecosystems and Management 17:1–26. Close ); also found in groves of young aspens with poplars and white spruce (7 Bent, A. C. (1953). Life Histories of North American Wood Warblers. Bulletin of the United States National Museum 203. Close ). Typical elevation of these habitats occurs from 400–1,100 m (91 Campbell, R. W., N. K. Dawe, I. McTaggart-Cowan, J. M. Cooper, G. W. Kaiser, M. C. E. McNall and A. C. Stewart (2001). The Birds of British Columbia, Volume 4: Passerines, Wood-Warblers through Old World Sparrows. University of British Columbia Press, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. Close ). Dense understory is usually less than 3 m in height (92 Siddle, C. (1992). The declining populations of warblers in northeastern British Columbia. In Community Action for Endangered Species: a Public Symposium on B.C.’s Threatened and Endangered Species and Their Habitat (S. Rautio, Editor). Federation of British Columbia Naturalists and Northwest Wildlife Preservation Society, Vancouver, BC, Canada. pp. 143–151 Close ). Mid-canopy is open with few branches (93 Cooper, J. M., K. A. Enns and M. G. Shepard (1997). Status of the Connecticut Warbler in British Columbia. British Columbia Ministry of the Environment, Lands and Parks, Wildlife Branch, Wildlife Working Report No. WR-83. Victoria, BC, Canada. Close ). A comprehensive study by Preston et al. (94 Preston, M., F. Bunnell, and P. Vernier (2007). Identification of habitat variables and information gaps for providing scale-dependent management recommendations to monitor Black-throated Green Warbler and Connecticut Warbler in northeast British Columbia. Technical Report for Ministry of Environment, British Columbia and Louisiana-Pacific Canada Ltd. Close ) found the following characteristics of breeding habitat near Dawson Creek: wide age range of aspen stands with average age of 68 years, canopy containing gaps; low densities of spruce, average shrub cover less than 20%, less than 5% of cover by tall shrubs (less than 2 m tall), herbaceous cover greater than 75%, approximately 40% cover by grasses, terrain with an average slope 8.1^°. Tall cover by herbaceous plants combined with low shrub cover were considered best predictors of breeding habitat. Most common shrubs were rose, soopolaillie (Shepherdia canadensis), raspberry, and spiraea (Spiraea spp.). Herbaceous species dominated by grasses (unknown species) along with fireweed (Epilobium angustifolium), willow, tall bluebell (Mertensia paniculta), aster (Aster spp.), American vetch (Vicia americana), and peavine (Lathyrus nevadensis) (94 Preston, M., F. Bunnell, and P. Vernier (2007). Identification of habitat variables and information gaps for providing scale-dependent management recommendations to monitor Black-throated Green Warbler and Connecticut Warbler in northeast British Columbia. Technical Report for Ministry of Environment, British Columbia and Louisiana-Pacific Canada Ltd. Close ).

Several studies of habitat monitoring of boreal species in Minnesota have included breeding habitat descriptions. Grinde et al. (95 Grinde, A. R., G. J. Niemi, B. R. Sturtevant, H. Panci, W. Thogmartin, and P. Wolter (2017). Importance of scale, land cover, and weather on the abundance of bird species in a managed forest. Forest Ecology and Management 405:295–308. Close ) found that abundance was positively associated with lowland coniferous forests in the Chippewa National Forest. Wet, mature black spruce–tamarack forests made up the most important breeding habitat in the Chippewa and Superior National Forests in northern Minnesota (96 Niemi, G. J., R. W. Howe, B. R. Sturtevant, L. R. Parker, A. R. Grinde, N. P. Danz, M. D. Nelson, E. J. Zlonis, N. G. Walton, E. E. Gnass Giese, and S. M. Lietz (2016). Analysis of long-term forest bird monitoring data from national forests of the western Great Lakes Region. U.S.D.A. Forest Service General Technical Report NRS-159. Close ). Warblers occupied wet coniferous forests in Rice Lake National Wildlife Refuge and Tamarac National Wildlife Refuge in Minnesota (97 Corace, R. G., III, L. M. Shartell, L. A. Schulte, W. L. Brininger, M. K. D. McDowell, and D. M. Kashian (2012). An ecoregional context for forest management on National Wildlife Refuges of the Upper Midwest, USA. Environmental Management 49:359–371. Close ). Zlonis et al. (98 Zlonis, E. J., H. G. Panci, J. D. Bednar, M. Hamady, and G. J. Niemi (2017). Habitats and landscapes associated with bird species in a lowland conifer-dominated ecosystem. Avian Conservation and Ecology 12(1):7. Close ) used Maxent modeling to find the best environmental predictor variables that correlated with species presence and breeding habitat in northern Minnesota. Stagnant stands of black spruce and tamarack, intermediate levels of basal area occupied by trees, stand age, and buffers from human disturbance like logging were positively correlated with species presence. Sedge meadow, upland forests within 200 m, and mature cedar forests were negatively correlated. They were also found breeding in productive black spruce and tamarack bogs with harvestable timber.

Bednar (99 Bednar, J. D. (2017). Habitat and landscape associations of breeding birds in forested peatlands, Minnesota. M.S. thesis, University of Minnesota. Minneapolis, MN, USA. Close ) described the site characteristics of three habitats that contained breeding warblers in the Agassiz Lowland Subsection of Minnesota: 1) stagnant stands of black spruce and tamarack bogs; 2) semi-productive black spruce and tamarack bogs; and 3) productive black spruce and tamarack bogs. The stagnant stands were characterized by an average DBH of 8 cm, average height of 5–6 m and average age of 65 years. Semi-productive black spruce and tamarack bogs were intermediate with an average age of 97 years, average DBH of 11 cm and average tree height of 11 m. Semi-productive black spruce and tamarack bogs were the most important habitat for the Connecticut Warbler. Productive black spruce and tamarack bogs were older with larger trees: average of 127 years old, average DBH of 15 cm, average height of 13 m. Bednar (99 Bednar, J. D. (2017). Habitat and landscape associations of breeding birds in forested peatlands, Minnesota. M.S. thesis, University of Minnesota. Minneapolis, MN, USA. Close ) also observed the Connecticut Warbler in forests disturbed by the eastern larch beetle (Dendroctonus simplex). The site characteristics of this habitat were similar to semi-productive black spruce and tamarack bogs due to the widespread destruction of larger tamarack trees by the beetle.

Lapin et al. (100 Lapin, C., M. Etterson, and G. Niemi (2013). Occurrence of the Connecticut Warbler increases with size of patches of coniferous forest. Condor 115:168–177. Close ) studied associations between habitat and landscape variables and Connecticut Warbler abundance at three different spatial scales, within buffers of radii of 100 m, 500 m, and 1,000 m. Higher densities of ground cover, lower percentage of canopy cover and lower percentage of deciduous forest were important at the 100 m spatial scale. Higher percentage of black spruce and lower density of all trees were important at the 500 m scale. The most important variables at the 1,000 m scale were higher percentages of upland and lowland coniferous forests, low percentage of upland deciduous forest, and larger forest patch size. They concluded that the most suitable habitat was found in large patches of lowland coniferous forest that were mixed together within a mosaic of lowland and upland conifer forests in northern Minnesota.

Fledglings moved from mature forest to disturbed habitat in Minnesota. Streby (101 Streby, H. M., S. M. Peterson, T. L. McAllister, and D. E. Andersen (2011). Use of early-successional managed northern forest by mature-forest species during the post-fledging period. Condor 113(4):817–824. Close ) caught fledglings with mist nets in regenerating clearcuts of different ages with average canopy height less than 5.1 m. Younger stands were composed of red raspberry (Rubus strigosus) and aspen (Populus spp.) saplings less than 2 m in height. Older stands were dominated by taller aspen saplings (4–6 m) with red maple (Acer rubrum), hazel (Corylus spp.), and pussy willow (Salix discolor).

In northern Wisconsin, the species is found in oak‒jack pine forests with dense underbrush, as well as margins of coniferous swamps (102 Robbins, S. D., Jr. (1991). Wisconsin Birdlife: Population and Distribution, Past and Present. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, Wisconsin, USA. Close ). Dependent on conifer forests with understory of shrubs, dead pine branches, ferns (Pteridium), and tamarack bogs throughout most of the state (80 Kudell-Ekstrum, J. (2002). Conservation assessment for Connecticut Warbler (Oporornis agilis). U.S.D.A. Forest Service, Eastern Region, Milwaukee, WI, USA. Close ). Based on breeding bird survey data, warblers were more common in mature jack pine forests with DBH > 12.7 cm and dense understory with small shrubs in Bayfield county, Wisconsin (103 Walton, N., S. Kolbe, and A. Grinde (2019). Bayfield County Forest breeding bird survey modeling report. Natural Resources Research Institute Technical Summary Report NRRI/TSR-2019/06. Duluth, MN, USA. Close ). In Michigan, there is a variety of forest habitats, but often consisting of aspen (104 Binford, L. C. (1991). Connecticut Warbler, Oporornis agilis. In The Atlas of Breeding Birds of Michigan (R. Brewer, G. A. McPeek and R. J. Adams, Editors). Michigan State University Press, East Lansing, MI, USA. Close ): dry mixed-woods forest with aspen‒birch, aspen‒pine‒fir; mesic mixed forests consisting of aspen, firs (Abies), and pines; wet coniferous spruce forest and tamarack bogs (80 Kudell-Ekstrum, J. (2002). Conservation assessment for Connecticut Warbler (Oporornis agilis). U.S.D.A. Forest Service, Eastern Region, Milwaukee, WI, USA. Close ). Corace et al. (97 Corace, R. G., III, L. M. Shartell, L. A. Schulte, W. L. Brininger, M. K. D. McDowell, and D. M. Kashian (2012). An ecoregional context for forest management on National Wildlife Refuges of the Upper Midwest, USA. Environmental Management 49:359–371. Close ) found Connecticut Warbler in wet coniferous forests on the Seney National Wildlife Refuge in northern Michigan. See also Breeding: Nest Site, and Food Habitats: Feeding.

Habitat in Migration

During spring migration, predominantly recorded in brushy understory tangles in swamp forest, and on occasion in upland woods in Ohio; some males were noted to leave the dense tangles to perch and sing from small trees or bushes (105 Trautman, M. B. (1940). The birds of Buckeye Lake, Ohio. University of Michigan, Museum of Zoology Miscellaneous Publication 44. Close ). It was observed more often in forest gaps created by tree falls with dense understory during spring migration in Illinois (106 Blake, J. G., and W. G. Hoppes (1986). Influence of resource abundance on use of tree-fall gaps by birds in an isolated woodlot. Auk 103(2):328–340. Close , 107 Martin, T. E., and J. R. Karr (1986). Patch utilization by migrating birds: Resource oriented? Ornis Scandinavica 17(2):165–174. Close ). It occurs on or near the ground in mature floodplain forest in Kentucky (108 Mengel, R. M. (1965). The birds of Kentucky. Ornithological Monographs 3. American Ornithologists' Union, Washington, DC, USA. Close ). It is uncommon but regular in city parks and yards in residential areas with lilac bushes (Ceanothus), shrubs, and other low, dense vegetation in Wisconsin (102 Robbins, S. D., Jr. (1991). Wisconsin Birdlife: Population and Distribution, Past and Present. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, Wisconsin, USA. Close ).

During fall migration along the East Coast, it frequents: wet brushy areas; low, damp woodlands with dense undergrowth; and weed and brier patches along the edges of moist fields, pastures, and banks along ditches and hedgerows (109 Chapman, F. M. (1907). The Warblers of North America. D. Appleton & Company, New York, NY, USA. Close ). The Connecticut Warbler is one of several fall migrants that modifies its use of habitat patches based on the availability of ripe fruit, invertebrates, soil moisture, and defoliation at migratory stopover sites near Acadia National Park in Maine. Olsen et al. (110 Olsen, B. J., J. D. McCabe, E. M. Adams, D. P. Grunzel, and A. J. Leppold (2015). Matching ephemeral resources on autumnal stopover and the potential for mismatch. In Phenological synchrony and bird migration: changing climate and seasonal resources in North America (E. M. Wood and J. L. Kellermann Editors), Studies in Avian Biology (no. 47), CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, USA. pp. 163–176. Close ) determined that this bird is sensitive to changes in these variables and subject to potential phenological mismatches with stopover arrival times caused by climate change. In Massachusetts, occurs in large maples (Acer) in wooded area of swamps, thickets of clethra, shadbush (Amelanchier), black alder (Alnus glutinosa), on the ground and under or within rank vegetation in beds of jewelweed (Impatiens); it is also found along banks of intersecting ditches with deadly nightshade (Solanum) (109 Chapman, F. M. (1907). The Warblers of North America. D. Appleton & Company, New York, NY, USA. Close , 111 Forbush, E. H., and J. B. May (1939). Natural History of the Birds of Eastern and Central North America. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, Massachusetts, USA. Close , 112 Veit, R. R., and W. R. Petersen (1993). The Birds of Massachusetts. Massachussetts Audubon Society, Lincoln, Massachusetts, USA. Close ). Noted on occasion foraging in branches of taller trees during fall stopover; e.g., 20 m above ground in tall willows (Salix) (111 Forbush, E. H., and J. B. May (1939). Natural History of the Birds of Eastern and Central North America. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, Massachusetts, USA. Close ). Along the coast of New York, it appears in dense undergrowth with ragweed (Ambrosia), sunflowers (Helianthus), asters (Aster), catbrier (Smilax), poison ivy (Rhus), and bayberry (Berberis) (113 Bull, J. (1974). Birds of New York State. Doubleday Natural History Press, Garden City, NY, USA. Close ). It has a similar habitat in Pennsylvania: dense undergrowth of willows, ragweed, and jewelweed (114 Todd, W. E. C. (1940). The Birds of Western Pennsylvania. University of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. Close ). Fetterman (115 Fetterman, A. V. (2016). Habitat quality for stopover migrants at Rushton Woods Preserve, Chester County, Pennsylvania. Cassinia 76:43–51. Close ) described the vegetation characteristics of a fall stopover site for the Connecticut Warbler south at Rushton Woods Preserve near West Chester, Pennsylvania, as having an average canopy of 12.9 m consisting of box elder (Acer negundo) and black walnut (Juglans nigra), with the average shrub height of 3.4 m of amur honeysuckle (Lonicera maackii), spicebush (Lindera benzoin), and multiflora rose (Rosa multiflora). Thirty-three birds were observed using the capped Erie landfill at Meadowlands, in Lyndhurst, New Jersey where the habitat was composed of shrubs and herbaceous layer, with black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia) and eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides) trees (116 Marchese, N., M. Farrell, B. D’Amato, A. Totha, M. Newhouse, and E. Wiener (2021). Songbird use of a capped landfill as a migratory stopover site in the New Jersey Meadowlands. Poster session, 2021 American Ornithological Society 139^th State Meeting. Close ). During fall migration, Bystrak (117 Bystrak, D. (2014). Patuxent powerline right-of-way. North American Bird Bander 40:73–74. Close ) banded 13 warblers in an upland deciduous forest with a 2–3 m canopy of shrubs along a powerline corridor in eastern Maryland. Fall vagrants in Colorado have been observed away from woods in willows up to 1.5 m tall (118 Shier, G. R. (1971). First fall record of the Connecticut Warbler in Colorado. Colorodo Field Ornithology 10:19–20. Close ).

It has been observed in mesquite woodland and ucar (Bucida) in Puerto Rico (119 McKenzie, P. M., and R. E. Noble (1989). Site records for Connecticut Warbler (Oporornis agilis) and Yellow-throated Vireo (Vireo flavifrons) in Puerto Rico. Florida Field Naturalist 17:69–72. Close ). It is found in a variety of different habitats in Bermuda, including overgrown or cultivated fields, scrubland, parks, gardens, and hedgerows (120 Amos, E. J. R. (1991). A Guide to the Birds of Bermuda. Corncrake, Warwick, Bermuda. Close ). In Venezuela, transients have been recorded in parks, gardens, almost any habitat with trees and dense understory thickets, mostly at lower elevation, but up to 4,200 m (57 Hilty, S. L. (2003). Birds of Venezuela. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, USA. Close ). It appears primarily in tropical thorn scrub in northwestern Venezuela with blackbeads (Pithecellobium), mesquites (Prosopis), and cercidium (Parkinsonia), and undergrowth with prickly pear (Opuntia), Croton, and Lippia (121 Bosque, C., and M. Lentino (1987). The passage of North American migratory land birds through xerophytic habitats on the western coast of Venezuela. Biotropica 19:267–273. Close ). In mesquite scrub in foothills of Coastal Cordillera of Venezuela, transient individuals were observed in late April and mid-to-late October in scrub on the ground near a dry water course and 1.5‒3 m high in mesquite trees (122 Thomas, B. T. (1993). North American migrant passerines at two non-forested sites in Venezuela. Journal of Field Ornithology 64:549–556. Close , 123 Thomas, B. T. (1993). Birds of a northern Venezuelan secondary-scrub habitat. Bulletin of the British Ornithologists' Club 113(1):9–17. Close ). It has been recorded in moist second-growth and forest edge at lower and middle elevations during fall migration in Costa Rica (124 Stiles, F. G., and A. F. Skutch (1989). A Guide to the Birds of Costa Rica. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY, USA. Close ). It has occurred in second-growth of clearings in southeastern Peru (29 Parker, T. A., III (1982). Observations of some unusual rainforest and marsh birds in southeastern Peru. Wilson Bulletin 94(4):477–493. Close ). A presumed fall migrant was mist-netted on 18 November in white sand forest in northeastern Peru, where the habitat contained sandy soil with an average depth of 41.7 cm ± 20.5 SD, average canopy height of 14.3 m ± 3.5 SD, dense woody vegetation, and trees with average DBH of 19.8 cm ± 4.5 SD (125 Martin, J. U. (2017). Connecticut Warbler (Oporornis agilis) in a Peruvian white sand forest habitat. Boletín de la Unión de Ornitólogos del Perú 12:6–8. Close ).

Habitat in Overwintering Range

Information needed. Poorly known since there are few definitive records of overwintering individuals. In South America, habitats reported to include humid forest undergrowth, woodland, forest edge, generally below 1,000 m elevation (58 Ridgely, R. S., and G. Tudor (2009). Field Guide to the Songbirds of South America: the Passerines. University of Texas Press, Austin, Texas, USA. Close ). There are records of overwintering birds from two areas in Bolivia. It has been reported from 220–370 m in dry, deciduous woodlands at several localities from the Chaco in southeastern Bolivia. An adult male and female from the Chaco were banded during the first week of April, 1997 in the Santa Cruz Botanical Gardens. Additional records from the Chaco region include Tucavaca, Estancia El Canon, Fortin Ravelo, Palmar de las Islas, dates unknown (63 Herzog, S. K., V. H. Garcia-Soliz, and S. E. Davis (2009). Status of the Cerulean Warbler (Dendroica cerulea) at the southern terminus of its non-breeding range, with a review of other Nearctic-neotropical migrant Parulidae in Bolivia. Ornitología Neotropical 20(1):121–130. Close ). In the upper Machariapo Valley of Bolivia at 1,200–1,500 m it occupies in dense deciduous scrub with a canopy height of 5–7 m; such habitats in the Machariapo and similar inter-Andean valleys are believed to be important overwintering areas in Bolivia (62 Aponte M. A., D. Ric, O. Maillard, D. F. Lane, R. S. Terrill, A. G. Calle, R. Ramirez, M. A. Montenegro, R. Arispe, L. H. Acosta, M. M. Salvatierra, W. S. Pantoja, G. Sánchez, and D. Aliaga-Pantoja (2022). New and noteworthy observations on the distribution of birds in Bolivia. Cotinga 44:9–18. Close ).