Systematics

Merops apiaster Linnaeus, 1758, Systema naturae, 10th Edition, Tome 1, p. 117. Distribution given as "Europa australi, Oriente" (27 Linnaeus, C. (1758). Systema Naturae per Regna tria Naturae, secundum Classes, Ordines, Genera, Species cum Characteribus, Differentiis, Synonymis, Locis. Volume 1. 10th edition. Laurentius Salvius, Holmia [Stockholm], Sweden. Close ).

In his Historia animalium, Aristotle placed Merops, or Aerops, under the Dryocopi, and all ancient authors after him followed this classification for a long time, partly under the name Melissophagus or Phlothros Melissophas (28 Reichenbach, H. G. L. (1853). Avium systema naturale. Das natürliche system der vögel mit hundert tafeln grösstentheils original-abbildungen der bis jetzt entdecken fast zwölfhundert typischen formen. Dresden and Liepzig, Germany. Close ). In the mid-1700s, 13 species of bee-eaters were listed under the genus "Apiaster" (29 Brisson, M.-J. (1760). Ornithologia sive Synopsis methodica sistens avium divisionem in ordines, sectiones, genera, species, ipsarumque varietates. Tomus II. Bauche, Paris, Leiden, Belgium, France, The Nederlands. Close ); the present Merops apiaster, whose distribution was described as "Habitat in meridionali Europae regione, & quidem in meridionalibus Galliae provinciis" [It lives in the southern part of Europe and in the southern provinces of Gallia], was only called "Apiaster." However, of the 13 species listed by Brisson (29 Brisson, M.-J. (1760). Ornithologia sive Synopsis methodica sistens avium divisionem in ordines, sectiones, genera, species, ipsarumque varietates. Tomus II. Bauche, Paris, Leiden, Belgium, France, The Nederlands. Close ), only seven could be confirmed as bee-eater species by our current taxonomy (30 Dresser, H. E. (1884-1886). A Monograph of the Meropidae, or Family of the Bee-eaters. Published Privately, London, UK. Close , 29 Brisson, M.-J. (1760). Ornithologia sive Synopsis methodica sistens avium divisionem in ordines, sectiones, genera, species, ipsarumque varietates. Tomus II. Bauche, Paris, Leiden, Belgium, France, The Nederlands. Close ). Some of Brisson's (29 Brisson, M.-J. (1760). Ornithologia sive Synopsis methodica sistens avium divisionem in ordines, sectiones, genera, species, ipsarumque varietates. Tomus II. Bauche, Paris, Leiden, Belgium, France, The Nederlands. Close ) "bee-eaters" were indeed found to be part of Merops, while others were found to be motmots; Apiaster brasiliensis is probably Momotus brasiliensis (now the Amazonian Motmot (Momotus momota)), and Apiaster mexicanus likely refers to the Russet-crowned Motmot (Momotus mexicanus) (29 Brisson, M.-J. (1760). Ornithologia sive Synopsis methodica sistens avium divisionem in ordines, sectiones, genera, species, ipsarumque varietates. Tomus II. Bauche, Paris, Leiden, Belgium, France, The Nederlands. Close ). In the first edition of his Systema naturae, Linnaeus (1735) listed the bee-eaters within the woodpeckers (Picae) as "Ispida;" the name Merops was used for the first time in the 9th edition (31 Linnaeus, C. von (1756). Systema Naturae Sistens Regna tria Naturae, in Classes et Ordines et Genera et Species Redacta, Tabulisque Aeneis Illustrata. Volume 1. 9th edition. Apud T. Haak, Leyden, The Netherlands. Close ), but it was still listed within "Ispida." In 1758, Merops apiaster was formally described for the first time (27 Linnaeus, C. (1758). Systema Naturae per Regna tria Naturae, secundum Classes, Ordines, Genera, Species cum Characteribus, Differentiis, Synonymis, Locis. Volume 1. 10th edition. Laurentius Salvius, Holmia [Stockholm], Sweden. Close ). Linnaeus, as well as Brisson (29 Brisson, M.-J. (1760). Ornithologia sive Synopsis methodica sistens avium divisionem in ordines, sectiones, genera, species, ipsarumque varietates. Tomus II. Bauche, Paris, Leiden, Belgium, France, The Nederlands. Close ), placed bee-eaters together with rollers, kingfishers, and 15 additional genera in the order "Picae."

Phenotypic characteristics of Meropidae, as well as their ecology, have been used to help understand their systematics and taxonomy since the 1800s, and these characters are still used today (30 Dresser, H. E. (1884-1886). A Monograph of the Meropidae, or Family of the Bee-eaters. Published Privately, London, UK. Close , 32 von Boetticher, H. (1935). Zur Systematik der Spinte oder Bienenfresser (Meropidae). Kócsag 8: 3–44. Close , 33 Burt, D. B. (2004). Plumage-based phylogenetic analyses of the Merops bee-eaters. Ibis 146(3):481–492. Close ). Recent genomic phylogenetic studies have found that bee-eaters are part of the Coraciiformes, which also includes the Old World-restricted rollers (Coraciidae) and ground-rollers (Brachypteraciidae), the New World todies (Todidae) and motmots (Momotidae), and the cosmopolitan kingfishers (Alcedinidae) (34 McCullough J. M., R. G. Moyle, B. T. Smith, and M. J. Andersen (2019). A Laurasian origin for a pantropical bird radiation is supported by genomic and fossil data (Aves: Coraciiformes). Proceedings of the Royal Society B 286:20190122. Close ). Based on genetic, but also fossil data, Meropidae are considered to be more closely related to Coraciidae and Brachypteraciidae than to the other families of the Coraciformes (35 Hackett, S. J., R. T. Kimball, S. Reddy, R. C. K. Bowie, E. L. Braun, and M. J. Braun, J. L. Chojnowski, W. A. Cox, K-L. Han, J. Harshman, C. J. Huddleston, B. D. Marks, K. J. Miglia, W. S. Moore, F. H. Sheldon, D. W. Steadman, C. C. Witt, and T. Yuri (2008). A phylogenomic study of birds reveals their evolutionary history. Science 320:1763–1767. Close , 36 Prum, R. O., J. S. Berv, A. Dornburg, D. J. Field, J. P. Townsend, E. M. Lemmon, and A. R. Lemmon (2015). A comprehensive phylogeny of birds (Aves) using targeted next-generation DNA sequencing. Nature 526:569–573. Close , 34 McCullough J. M., R. G. Moyle, B. T. Smith, and M. J. Andersen (2019). A Laurasian origin for a pantropical bird radiation is supported by genomic and fossil data (Aves: Coraciiformes). Proceedings of the Royal Society B 286:20190122. Close ).

The taxonomy of the bee-eaters is broadly consistent across the multiple global taxonomies, although there are differences that are supported by current genetic analyses. For instance, 28 species in 3 genera are recognized by the HBW/BirdLife International list (37 del Hoyo, J. (2020). All the Birds of the World. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain. Close ), while 31 species are recognized by the IOC World Bird List (38 Gill, F., D. Donsker, and P. Rasmussen, Editors (2023). IOC World Bird List (v 13.2). Close ) and by the Clements Checklist (39 Clements, J. F., P. C. Rasmussen, T. S. Schulenberg, M. J. Iliff, T. A. Fredericks, J. A. Gerbracht, D. Lepage, S. M. Billerman, B. L. Sullivan, and C. L. Wood (2023). The eBird/Clements checklist of Birds of the World: v2023. Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology, Ithaca, NY, USA. Close ) based on recent work that suggested a split (40 Wink, M., and C. Carneiro de Melo Moura (2021). Genetik und Phylogeographie des Bienenfressers. Vogelwarte 59:207-214. Close ; Table 5), albeit with differing numbers of genera.

The species is monotypic without phenotypic variability.

Despite the very large distribution, recent phylogenetic studies on mitochondrial and nuclear DNA of individuals from across the Palearctic-African range in Europe, Asia, and Africa revealed low to moderate divergence, surprisingly high genetic variability, and geographic panmixia across the whole distribution (41 Marks, B. D., J. D. Weckstein, and R. G. Moyle (2007). Molecular phylogenetics of the bee-eaters (Aves: Meropidae) based on nuclear and mitochondrial DNA sequence data. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 45(1):23–32. Close , 42 Ramos, R., G. Song, J. Navarro, R. Zhang, C. T. Symes, M. G. Forero, and F. Lei (2016). Population genetic structure and long-distance dispersal of a recently expanding migratory bird. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 99: 194–203. Close , 43 Carneiro de Melo Moura, C., H.-V. Bastian, A. Bastian, E. Wang, X. Wang, and M. Wink (2019). Pliocene origin, ice ages and postglacial population expansion have influenced a panmictic phylogeography of the European Bee-Eater Merops apiaster. Diversity 11, 12: 1–15. Close , 40 Wink, M., and C. Carneiro de Melo Moura (2021). Genetik und Phylogeographie des Bienenfressers. Vogelwarte 59:207-214. Close ), indicating extensive gene flow in the past as well as recent connectivity (42 Ramos, R., G. Song, J. Navarro, R. Zhang, C. T. Symes, M. G. Forero, and F. Lei (2016). Population genetic structure and long-distance dispersal of a recently expanding migratory bird. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 99: 194–203. Close , 40 Wink, M., and C. Carneiro de Melo Moura (2021). Genetik und Phylogeographie des Bienenfressers. Vogelwarte 59:207-214. Close ). The South African breeding population did not differ strongly genetically from individuals from Europe and Asia, despite its different breeding and migration patterns (43 Carneiro de Melo Moura, C., H.-V. Bastian, A. Bastian, E. Wang, X. Wang, and M. Wink (2019). Pliocene origin, ice ages and postglacial population expansion have influenced a panmictic phylogeography of the European Bee-Eater Merops apiaster. Diversity 11, 12: 1–15. Close ).

Ramos et al. (42 Ramos, R., G. Song, J. Navarro, R. Zhang, C. T. Symes, M. G. Forero, and F. Lei (2016). Population genetic structure and long-distance dispersal of a recently expanding migratory bird. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 99: 194–203. Close ) suggested that the weak genetic differentiation among European Bee-eater populations is likely due to their strong dispersal ability; it is suggested that long-distance dispersal events explain the similar genetic patterns of individuals from widely separated populations (42 Ramos, R., G. Song, J. Navarro, R. Zhang, C. T. Symes, M. G. Forero, and F. Lei (2016). Population genetic structure and long-distance dispersal of a recently expanding migratory bird. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 99: 194–203. Close ). Although this contradicts recent studies on group structure, dynamics, and cohesion during migration and in non-breeding areas (44 Dhanjal-Adams, K. L., S. Bauer, T. Emmenegger, S. Hahn, S. Lisovski, and F. Liechti (2018). Spatiotemporal group dynamics in a long-distance migratory bird. Current Biology 28: 2824–2830.e3 Close , 45 Hahn, S., J. A. Alves, K. Bedev, J. S. Costa, T. Emmenegger, M. Schulze, P. Tamm, P. Zehtindjiev, and K. L. Dhanjal‐Adams (2020). Range-wide migration corridors and non-breeding areas of a northward expanding Afro-Palaearctic migrant, the European Bee-eater Merops apiaster. Ibis 162: 345–355. Close , 46 Hahn, S., and M. Schulze (2021). Zugwege und Zugstrategien Europäischer Bienenfresser (Merops apiaster) der Westpaläarktis. Vogelwarte 59:215-222. Close ), changes in group structure have also been shown, which may lead to long-distance dispersal events. In addition to long-distance dispersal events, historical climate variability is another explanation for panmixia in the European Bee-eater (43 Carneiro de Melo Moura, C., H.-V. Bastian, A. Bastian, E. Wang, X. Wang, and M. Wink (2019). Pliocene origin, ice ages and postglacial population expansion have influenced a panmictic phylogeography of the European Bee-Eater Merops apiaster. Diversity 11, 12: 1–15. Close , 40 Wink, M., and C. Carneiro de Melo Moura (2021). Genetik und Phylogeographie des Bienenfressers. Vogelwarte 59:207-214. Close ). Under this scenario, bee-eaters repeatedly retreated to areas in the Mediterranean and subtropical Africa and Asia during the ice ages, and then expanded their breeding distribution northward again during the warm periods. Widespread gene flow across its range as a result of climate-induced range change appears to continue today (43 Carneiro de Melo Moura, C., H.-V. Bastian, A. Bastian, E. Wang, X. Wang, and M. Wink (2019). Pliocene origin, ice ages and postglacial population expansion have influenced a panmictic phylogeography of the European Bee-Eater Merops apiaster. Diversity 11, 12: 1–15. Close , 40 Wink, M., and C. Carneiro de Melo Moura (2021). Genetik und Phylogeographie des Bienenfressers. Vogelwarte 59:207-214. Close ).

Despite the overall lack of differentiation, however, there is some support for genetic clustering of populations from Europe and Asia (42 Ramos, R., G. Song, J. Navarro, R. Zhang, C. T. Symes, M. G. Forero, and F. Lei (2016). Population genetic structure and long-distance dispersal of a recently expanding migratory bird. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 99: 194–203. Close , 43 Carneiro de Melo Moura, C., H.-V. Bastian, A. Bastian, E. Wang, X. Wang, and M. Wink (2019). Pliocene origin, ice ages and postglacial population expansion have influenced a panmictic phylogeography of the European Bee-Eater Merops apiaster. Diversity 11, 12: 1–15. Close ). While one study found slight differences in genotypes between populations from western Europe and western Asia (43 Carneiro de Melo Moura, C., H.-V. Bastian, A. Bastian, E. Wang, X. Wang, and M. Wink (2019). Pliocene origin, ice ages and postglacial population expansion have influenced a panmictic phylogeography of the European Bee-Eater Merops apiaster. Diversity 11, 12: 1–15. Close ), another study suggested there were also slight differences between populations from eastern Europe and central Asia (42 Ramos, R., G. Song, J. Navarro, R. Zhang, C. T. Symes, M. G. Forero, and F. Lei (2016). Population genetic structure and long-distance dispersal of a recently expanding migratory bird. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 99: 194–203. Close ). These differences may reflect different migration routes (44 Dhanjal-Adams, K. L., S. Bauer, T. Emmenegger, S. Hahn, S. Lisovski, and F. Liechti (2018). Spatiotemporal group dynamics in a long-distance migratory bird. Current Biology 28: 2824–2830.e3 Close , 45 Hahn, S., J. A. Alves, K. Bedev, J. S. Costa, T. Emmenegger, M. Schulze, P. Tamm, P. Zehtindjiev, and K. L. Dhanjal‐Adams (2020). Range-wide migration corridors and non-breeding areas of a northward expanding Afro-Palaearctic migrant, the European Bee-eater Merops apiaster. Ibis 162: 345–355. Close ) and may be important for future genetic differentiation (43 Carneiro de Melo Moura, C., H.-V. Bastian, A. Bastian, E. Wang, X. Wang, and M. Wink (2019). Pliocene origin, ice ages and postglacial population expansion have influenced a panmictic phylogeography of the European Bee-Eater Merops apiaster. Diversity 11, 12: 1–15. Close , 40 Wink, M., and C. Carneiro de Melo Moura (2021). Genetik und Phylogeographie des Bienenfressers. Vogelwarte 59:207-214. Close ).

The systematic classification of bee-eater species has been conducted in a number of ways, including using plumage differences (33 Burt, D. B. (2004). Plumage-based phylogenetic analyses of the Merops bee-eaters. Ibis 146(3):481–492. Close ), morphological and ecological characters (47 Fry, C. H. (1969). The evolution and systematics of bee-eaters (Meropidae). Ibis 111(4): 557‒592. Close ), or genetic data (48 Adcock, G. J., K. Hodges, C. R. J. Boland, A. Cockburn, D. Ebert, and R. Heinsohn (2006). Microsatellite loci for behavioural studies of rainbow bee-eaters (Merops ornatus: Aves). Molecular Ecology Notes 6(3): 734–736. Close , 41 Marks, B. D., J. D. Weckstein, and R. G. Moyle (2007). Molecular phylogenetics of the bee-eaters (Aves: Meropidae) based on nuclear and mitochondrial DNA sequence data. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 45(1):23–32. Close , 49 Arif, I. A., H. A. Khan, M. Shobrak, and J. Williams (2011). Cytochrome c oxidase subunit I barcoding of the green bee-eater (Merops orientalis). Genetics and Molecular Research 10: 3992–3998. Close , 50 Bi, G., N. dos Remedios, D. A. Dawson, S. A. Kingma, J. Schroeder, and H. L. Dugdale (2016). A multiplex set for microsatellite typing and sexing of the European bee-eater (Merops apiaster). European Journal of Wildlife Research 62: 501–509. Close , 51 Bilgin, R., N. Ebeoğlu, S. İnak, M. A. Kırpık, J. J. Horns, and Ç. H. Şekercioğlu (2016). DNA barcoding of birds at a migratory hotspot in eastern Turkey highlights continental phylogeographic relationships. PLoS ONE 11(6): e0154454. Close , 43 Carneiro de Melo Moura, C., H.-V. Bastian, A. Bastian, E. Wang, X. Wang, and M. Wink (2019). Pliocene origin, ice ages and postglacial population expansion have influenced a panmictic phylogeography of the European Bee-Eater Merops apiaster. Diversity 11, 12: 1–15. Close ). Despite the number of studies that have investigated the relationships among bee-eaters, relationships are still not well-resolved, and further research is needed (43 Carneiro de Melo Moura, C., H.-V. Bastian, A. Bastian, E. Wang, X. Wang, and M. Wink (2019). Pliocene origin, ice ages and postglacial population expansion have influenced a panmictic phylogeography of the European Bee-Eater Merops apiaster. Diversity 11, 12: 1–15. Close , 40 Wink, M., and C. Carneiro de Melo Moura (2021). Genetik und Phylogeographie des Bienenfressers. Vogelwarte 59:207-214. Close ).

In one early study using morphological, biogeographical, ecological, and behavioral characters, the European Bee-eater appeared to be most closely related to both the Blue-throated Bee-eater (Merops viridis) and Chestnut-headed Bee-eater (Merops leschenaulti) (47 Fry, C. H. (1969). The evolution and systematics of bee-eaters (Meropidae). Ibis 111(4): 557‒592. Close ). However, in another study that used variations in plumage color, pattern, and shape, as well as biogeographical distribution patterns, it was difficult to resolve the closest relatives of the European Bee-eater (33 Burt, D. B. (2004). Plumage-based phylogenetic analyses of the Merops bee-eaters. Ibis 146(3):481–492. Close ).

A more recent phylogeny of bee-eaters that included 25 of the 28 currently recognized species was reconstructed using nuclear and mitochondrial DNA sequence data. In this study, the European Bee-eater appeared to be sister to the Australian Rainbow Bee-eater (Merops ornatus). These two species were in turn sister to three species, including the Madagascar Bee-eater (Merops superciliosus), Blue-cheeked Bee-eater (Merops persicus), and Blue-tailed Bee-eater (Merops philippinus) (41 Marks, B. D., J. D. Weckstein, and R. G. Moyle (2007). Molecular phylogenetics of the bee-eaters (Aves: Meropidae) based on nuclear and mitochondrial DNA sequence data. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 45(1):23–32. Close ). This relationship was further supported in a study using mitochondrial DNA that date the split between the European Bee-eater and Rainbow Bee-eater at about 2 million years ago during the Pleistocene (40 Wink, M., and C. Carneiro de Melo Moura (2021). Genetik und Phylogeographie des Bienenfressers. Vogelwarte 59:207-214. Close ). The establishment of the current haplotype lineages of the European Bee-eater has been dated to the middle Pleistocene about 0.6 Mya (43 Carneiro de Melo Moura, C., H.-V. Bastian, A. Bastian, E. Wang, X. Wang, and M. Wink (2019). Pliocene origin, ice ages and postglacial population expansion have influenced a panmictic phylogeography of the European Bee-Eater Merops apiaster. Diversity 11, 12: 1–15. Close ). The relationships recovered in Marks et al. (41 Marks, B. D., J. D. Weckstein, and R. G. Moyle (2007). Molecular phylogenetics of the bee-eaters (Aves: Meropidae) based on nuclear and mitochondrial DNA sequence data. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 45(1):23–32. Close ) has not been supported in all studies, however. In another phylogeny using one mitochondrial gene, the European Bee-eater was instead sister to the Rosy Bee-eater (Merops malimbicus) (43 Carneiro de Melo Moura, C., H.-V. Bastian, A. Bastian, E. Wang, X. Wang, and M. Wink (2019). Pliocene origin, ice ages and postglacial population expansion have influenced a panmictic phylogeography of the European Bee-Eater Merops apiaster. Diversity 11, 12: 1–15. Close ); this study did not sample all Merops species, however, including the Rainbow Bee-eater.

No hybridization known.

The generic name "Merops" comes from ancient Greek mythology, and is associated with Merops, king of an ancient kingdom and mentor to the more famous king of Troy, Priamos. The species name "apiaster" is derived from the Latin term for bee, apes, and edere, to eat, translating to "bee-eater."

In Austria, an upper arm bone dated to the early Pleistocene, 2.5–2.0 million years ago (Mya), was assigned to a species close to the present Merops apiaster (52 Jánossy, D. (1974). Die mittelpleistozäne Vogelfauna von Hundsheim (Niederösterreich). Sitzungsberichte der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, mathematisch-naturwissenschaftlichen Klasse, Abteilung 182: 211–257. Close ). Based on molecular clock methods, speciation of Merops apiaster was estimated to have begun during the Pleistocene approximately 2 Mya when it spilt with Merops ornatus from their common ancestor (40 Wink, M., and C. Carneiro de Melo Moura (2021). Genetik und Phylogeographie des Bienenfressers. Vogelwarte 59:207-214. Close ); the extant haplotype lineages of Merops apiaster date to the middle Pleistocene, about 0.6 Mya (43 Carneiro de Melo Moura, C., H.-V. Bastian, A. Bastian, E. Wang, X. Wang, and M. Wink (2019). Pliocene origin, ice ages and postglacial population expansion have influenced a panmictic phylogeography of the European Bee-Eater Merops apiaster. Diversity 11, 12: 1–15. Close ). Hence, the Austrian record from the early Pleistocene (52 Jánossy, D. (1974). Die mittelpleistozäne Vogelfauna von Hundsheim (Niederösterreich). Sitzungsberichte der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, mathematisch-naturwissenschaftlichen Klasse, Abteilung 182: 211–257. Close ) is probably not Merops apiaster, but possibly an ancestor of the present species. Records directly attributable to Merops apiaster from the Pleistocene have come from two sites in France, the Dordogne (53 Mourer-Chauviré, C. (1975). Les oiseaux du Pléistocène moyen et supérieur de France. Documents du Laboratoire de Géologie de la Faculté de Sciences de Lyon 64:1–624. Close ) and Corsica (54 Louchart A. (2001). Les oiseaux du Pléistocène de Corse et données concernant la Sardaigne. Bulletin de la Société des sciences historiques et naturelles de la Corse 696–697: 187–221. Close , 55 Louchart, A. (2002). Les oiseaux du Pléistocène de Corse et de quelques localités sardes. Écologie, évolution, biogéographie et extinctions. Documents des Laboratoires de Géologie 155: 3–287. Close ), and from Israel and Russia (56 Brodkorb, P. (1971). Catalogue of fossil birds, Part 4 (Columbiformes through Piciformes). Bulletin of the Florida State Museum, Biological Sciences 15(4):163–266. Close ). From the Holocene, following the last ice age about 11,700 years ago, a few fossil records are available from three Mediterranean sites in France: one each from the Mesolithic, early Neolithic, and Middle Ages (57 Clergeau, P., J.-D. Vigne, and M. Pascal (2003). Le Guêpier d’Europe: Merops apiaster Linné, 1758. In Évolution holocène de la faune de Vertébrés de France: invasions et disparitions (M. Pascal, O. Lorvelec, J.-D. Vigne, P. Keith and P. Clergeau, Editors), Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France. pp. 239–240. Close ). An upper arm bone from the 5th century B.C. in Egypt belongs to a bee-eater but cannot be separated from the similarly sized Madagascar Bee-eater (Merops superciliosus); the bone came from a pile of kitchen waste in a settlement (58 Boessneck, J. (1986). Vogelknochenfunde aus dem alten Ägypten. Annalen des Naturhistorischen Museums in Wien 88/89: 323–344. Close ).

Bee-eaters are depicted on wall paintings in ancient Egyptian tombs and are written in hieroglyphics, especially on medical papyri, as the ancient Egyptians believed that the bird possessed magical forces (59 Dawson, W. R. (1925). The Bee-eater (Merops apiaster) from the earliest times, and a further note on the Hoopoe. Ibis (12)1:590–593. Close ).