Habitat

The Golden Eagle occupies a wide variety of habitats, the use of which varies across time and space, and is often associated with season, age, breeding status, and specific behaviors. The species occurs at sea level, in the highest mountains, and at all intermediate elevations. Although often observed in association with open grassland, desert, alpine, or shrub-steppe habitats (e.g., western North America, Scotland, central Asia, the Alps and Apennines), the species occurs in many types of forested landscapes (e.g., eastern North America, Sweden, Japan). Perhaps the most consistent habitat association is that it often occurs near areas of high topographic relief (mountains, rolling hills). However, even that association is not absolute, particularly during the non-breeding season, when wintering eagles may be found in more variable terrain wherever perches and prey are available. In northern Kazakhstan, Alaska’s North Slope, and northern Quebec, for example, inhabited areas are remarkably flat. The species only occasionally occurs in marine habitats and it seems to avoid crossing large expanses of open water. It tends to avoid areas with dense human populations, but in California and Switzerland, and potentially elsewhere, some nest close to homes or other buildings.

Nests in a wide variety of habitats from near sea level to 3,630 m (134 Poole, K. G., and R. G. Bromley (1988a). Interrelationships within a raptor guild in the central Canadian Arctic. Canadian Journal of Zoology 66: 2275–2282. Close ; G. R. Craig, personal communication). Nesting habitat includes tundra, shrublands, grasslands, woodland-brushlands, and coniferous forests (198 Kochert, M. N. (1986). Raptors. In Inventory and Monitoring of Wildlife Habitat (A. L. Cooperrider, R. J. Boyd, and H. R. Stuart, Editors). U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Denver, CO, USA. pp. 313–349. Close , 144 Miller, T. A., R. P. Brooks, M. J. Lanzone, J. Cooper, K. O’Malley, D. Brandes, A. Duerr, and T. E. Katzner (2017). Summer and winter space use and home range characteristics of Golden Eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) in eastern North America. Condor 119: 697–719. Close ). However, the species is also present in farmland and riparian habitats (199 Kochert, M. N. (1972). Population status and chemical contamination in Golden Eagles in southwestern Idaho. M.S. thesis, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, USA. Close , 200 Menkens, G. E., Jr., and S. H. Anderson (1987). Nest site characteristics of a predominantly tree-nesting population of Golden Eagles. Journal of Field Ornithology 58: 22–25. Close ) and in forested areas of eastern and western North America is more common than once recognized (144 Miller, T. A., R. P. Brooks, M. J. Lanzone, J. Cooper, K. O’Malley, D. Brandes, A. Duerr, and T. E. Katzner (2017). Summer and winter space use and home range characteristics of Golden Eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) in eastern North America. Condor 119: 697–719. Close ).

Nesting habitat is often associated with either cliffs or trees, although some nests are built on the ground. In northeastern Wyoming, nests frequently are in deciduous trees or, less often, ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) close to water courses (200 Menkens, G. E., Jr., and S. H. Anderson (1987). Nest site characteristics of a predominantly tree-nesting population of Golden Eagles. Journal of Field Ornithology 58: 22–25. Close ). Nesting territories in southwestern Montana are at lower elevations and contain more grassland–sagebrush (Artemisia) habitat than do unused areas (201 Baglien, J. W. (1975). Biology and habitat requirements of the nesting Golden Eagle in southwestern Montana. M.S. thesis, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, USA. Close ). Nesting density in central Idaho is higher in areas bordered by sagebrush and grass seedings than in areas bordered by agriculture (202 Craig, T. H., and E. H. Craig (1984b). Results of a helicopter survey of cliff nesting raptors in a deep canyon in southern Idaho. Raptor Research 18: 20–25. Close ). In northeastern Colorado, nests are primarily in grasslands near cliffs and not near cultivated areas (203 Olendorff, R. R. (1973). The ecology of the nesting birds of prey of northeastern Colorado. U.S. International Biological Program, Grassland Biome Technical Report 211. Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA. Close ). In eastern Utah, uses conifer–aspen (Populus) and pinyon–juniper (Pinus–Juniperus) habitats proportionate to their availability, and uses talus habitat less than expected (204 Bates, J. W., and M. O. Moretti (1994). Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) population ecology in eastern Utah. Great Basin Naturalist 54: 248–255. Close ). In northern Utah, nests mainly in grass, shrub, and juniper habitats (205 Peterson, D. L. (1988a). Nesting and habitat parameters for selected raptors in the desert of northern Utah. M.S. thesis, Utah State University, Logan, UT, USA. Close ). In Wyoming, nests primarily in grassland, shrubland, or riparian habitats; nests absent or rare in flat desert terrain, farmlands, and dense forests (206 Phillips, R. L., T. P. McEneaney, and A. E. Beske (1984). Population densities of breeding Golden Eagles in Wyoming. Wildlife Society Bulletin 12: 269–273. Close ). Wyoming nests are also associated with high levels of topographic roughness (207 Squires, J. R., L. E. Olson, Z. P. Wallace, R. J. Oakleaf, and P. L. Kennedy (2020). Resource selection of apex raptors: implications for siting energy development in sagebrush and prairie ecosystems. Ecosphere 11(8): e03204 Close ). In central California, nests primarily in open grasslands and oak (Quercus) savanna and to a lesser degree in oak woodland and open shrublands (208 Hunt, W. G., R. E. Jackman, T. L. Brown, J. G. Gilardi, D. E. Driscoll, and L. Culp (1995). A pilot Golden Eagle population study in the Altamont Pass Wind Resource Area, California. Predatory Bird Research Group, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, USA. Close , 209 Hunt, W. G., R. E. Jackman, T. L. Hunt, D. E. Driscoll, and L. Culp (1999). A population study of Golden Eagles in the Altamont Pass Wind Resource Area; Population trend analysis 1994–1997. Predatory Bird Research Group, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, USA. Close ). In Arizona, uses desert grasslands and chaparral habitats (210 Millsap, B. A. (1981). Distributional status of Falconiformes in west central Arizona with notes on ecology, reproductive success, and management. U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau Land Management, Phoenix, AZ, USA. Close ). In eastern Canada, home ranges north of 60°N are dominated by tundra and those south of 55°N are dominated by forest (144 Miller, T. A., R. P. Brooks, M. J. Lanzone, J. Cooper, K. O’Malley, D. Brandes, A. Duerr, and T. E. Katzner (2017). Summer and winter space use and home range characteristics of Golden Eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) in eastern North America. Condor 119: 697–719. Close ). Shrublands or grasslands are the dominant cover types of home ranges at intermediate latitudes. Throughout this eastern Canadian nesting habitat, topography is highly variable, ranging from extremely rugged in Labrador and eastern Quebec, to flat in interior Quebec and into Ontario and Manitoba. In the eastern Hudson Bay region, nests in areas with cuesta relief (asymmetric hills or ridges with gentle slopes and steep escarpments) and rugged topography (211 Morneau, F., S. Brodeur, R. Décarie, S. Carrière, and D. M. Bird (1994). Abundance and distribution of nesting Golden Eagles in Hudson Bay, Quebec. Journal of Raptor Research 28: 220–225. Close ).

In interior and northern Alaska and interior western Canada, nests in a wide variety of habitats. In some places, uses habitat dominated by rugged topography or mountainous terrain, near or above timberline, and along riparian areas (212 Ritchie, R. J., and J. A. Curatolo (1982). Notes on Golden Eagle productivity and nest site characteristics, Porcupine River, Alaska, 1979–1982. Raptor Research 16: 123–127. Close , 174 Petersen, M. R., D. N. Weir, and M. H. Dick (1991). Birds of the Kilbuck and Ahklun mountain region, Alaska. North American Fauna 76, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC, USA. Close , 131 Young, D. D., Jr., C. L. McIntyre, P. J. Bente, T. R. McCabe and R. E. Ambrose (1995). Nesting by Golden Eagles on the north slope of the Brooks Range in northeastern Alaska. Journal of Field Ornithology 66: 373–379. Close ). In other areas, nests on bluffs and cliffs along rivers below timberline (212 Ritchie, R. J., and J. A. Curatolo (1982). Notes on Golden Eagle productivity and nest site characteristics, Porcupine River, Alaska, 1979–1982. Raptor Research 16: 123–127. Close ) or on sea cliffs (northwestern Alaska; K. Titus, personal communication). In Denali National Park and Preserve, nesting territories are common in mountainous areas between 300 and 1,525 m that are dominated by subalpine and alpine vegetation (213 McIntyre, C. L., M. W. Collopy, and M. S. Lindberg (2006). Survival probability and mortality of migratory juvenile Golden Eagles from interior Alaska. Journal of Wildlife Management 70: 717–722. Close ). However, they also may nest in flatter tundra-dominated areas, if there are rock outcrops or other suitable nest sites (EHC, CLM; T. Booms, personal communication). In east-central Yukon, breeding is associated with tundra, river outwash plains, and alpine-subalpine ecotypes (214 Hayes, R., and D. H. Mossop (1981). 1981 birds of prey inventory, nesting raptor studies in the North Canol-MacMillan Pass Development Areas. Yukon Department of Renewable Resources, Whitehorse, YT, Canada. Close ). In coastal parts of the central Canadian Arctic, occurs in areas with high topographic relief dominated by low-arctic tundra plant species (134 Poole, K. G., and R. G. Bromley (1988a). Interrelationships within a raptor guild in the central Canadian Arctic. Canadian Journal of Zoology 66: 2275–2282. Close ). Associated with open habitats in forests west of the Cascade Mountains (215 Anderson, R. J., and A. M. Bruce (1980). A comparison of selected Bald and Golden eagle nests in western Washington. In Proceedings of the Washington Bald Eagle Symposium (R. L. Knight, G. T. Allen, M. V. Stalmaster, and C. W. Servheen, Editors), Nature Conservancy, Seattle, WA., USA. pp. 117–120. Close , 159 Bruce, A. M., R. J. Anderson, and G. T. Allen (1982). Observations of Golden Eagles nesting in western Washington. Raptor Research 16: 132–134. Close ), but recent camera trapping suggests they may be more common than once recognized in forested habitats (B. Woodbridge, personal communication).

In North America, traditionally thought to forage in open habitats such as grasslands or steppe-like vegetation. However, telemetry data have revealed more frequent use of forested landscapes than previously recognized, especially in eastern North America (144 Miller, T. A., R. P. Brooks, M. J. Lanzone, J. Cooper, K. O’Malley, D. Brandes, A. Duerr, and T. E. Katzner (2017). Summer and winter space use and home range characteristics of Golden Eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) in eastern North America. Condor 119: 697–719. Close ). In southwestern Idaho, prefers to forage in shrub habitat, and avoids agriculture, grassland, and burned habitats (176 Marzluff, J. M., S. T. Knick, M. S. Vekasy, L. S. Schueck, and T. J. Zarriello (1997). Spatial use and habitat selection of Golden Eagles in southwestern Idaho. Auk 114(4): 673–687. Close ; U.S. Geological Survey, unpublished data). In central California, forages in open grassland habitats (209 Hunt, W. G., R. E. Jackman, T. L. Hunt, D. E. Driscoll, and L. Culp (1999). A population study of Golden Eagles in the Altamont Pass Wind Resource Area; Population trend analysis 1994–1997. Predatory Bird Research Group, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, USA. Close ). In eastern North America, forages in open and semi-open mountainous or hilly terrain (216 Spofford, W. R. (1971). The breeding status of the Golden Eagle in the Appalachians. American Birds 25: 3–7. Close , 196 Singer, F. J. (1974). Status of the Osprey, Bald Eagle, and Golden Eagle in the Adirondacks. N.Y. Fish and Game Journal 21: 18–31. Close , 142 Brodeur, S., and F. Morneau (1999). Rapport sur la situation de l'aigle royal (Aquila chrysaetos) au Québec. Direction de la faune et des habitats, Société de la faune et des parcs du Québec, Quebec City, QC, Canada. Close ). In Alaska, along the Kolomak River and Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta and in the Atigun and Sagavanirktok River valleys, forages in wet marsh tundra, heath tundra, tussock-heath tundra, and hillside heath tundra valleys (217 Holmes, R. T., and C. P. Black (1973). Ecological distribution of birds in the Kolomak River-Askinuk Mountain region, Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta, Alaska. Condor 75: 150–163. Close , 218 Sage, B. L. (1974). Ecological distribution of birds in the Atigun and Sagavanirktok River valleys, arctic Alaska. Canadian Field-Naturalist 88: 281–291. Close ). In southwestern Alaska, forages on alpine tundra slopes at the edges of subalpine scrub and only rarely in open areas below timberline (174 Petersen, M. R., D. N. Weir, and M. H. Dick (1991). Birds of the Kilbuck and Ahklun mountain region, Alaska. North American Fauna 76, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC, USA. Close ). In northwestern Yukon, may frequent local dumps and roadways, presumably searching for road kills (219 Burles, D. W., and R. Frey (1981). Raptor monitoring program, 1980 report. Kluane National Park, Yukon Territory, Canada. Close ).

Telemetry studies (220 McIntyre, C. L., D. C. Douglas, and M. W. Collopy (2008). Movements of Golden Eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) from interior Alaska during their first year of independence. Auk 125: 214–224. Close , 221 McIntyre, C. L., and S. B. Lewis (2017). Statewide movements of non-territorial Golden Eagles in Alaska during the breeding season: Information for developing effective conservation plans. Alaska Park Science 17(1). Close ) and results from aerial and ground surveys (222 Mauer, F. (1985). Distribution and relative abundance of Golden Eagles in relation to the Porcupine Caribou herd calving and post-calving periods, 1984. In Arctic National Wildlife Refuge Coastal Plain Resource Assessment, 1984 Update Report Baseline Study of the Fish, Wildlife and their Habitats, Volume I, Section 1002C, Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act. U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Region 7, Anchorage, AK, USA. pp. 114–144. Close , 223 Ritchie, R. J., A. M. Wildman, and D. A. Yokel (2003). Aerial surveys of cliff-nesting raptors in the National Petroleum Reserve – Alaska, 1999, with comparisons to 1977. U. S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Fairbanks, AK, USA. Close , 224 Ritchie, B. (2014). Raptor surveys at lakes in the Foothill-Coastal Plain Transition, Colville to Kuk Rivers, NPR-A, Alaska, July 2012 and 2013. Unpublished report. ABR, Inc. and Bureau of Land Management, Fairbanks, AK, USA. Close , 225 Shook, J. E., and R. J. Ritchie (2017). Raptor surveys at lakes in the Foothill-Coastal Plain Transition, Colville to Kuk Rivers, NPR-A, Alaska, July 2016. Unpublished report. ABR, Inc. and Alaska and Bureau of Land Management, Fairbanks, AK, USA. Close ), suggest that the vast wetlands and upland areas of Alaska’s North Slope provide important pre-breeding hotspots for younger individuals who have not entered the breeding population. Similarly, telemetry studies in eastern North America have illustrated that a large expanse of land south and west of Ungava Bay, Quebec, is used by many non-territorial individuals (TEK, TAM). These areas have not been surveyed as extensively as in Alaska, but likely have similar habitats and an adequate prey base.

Nesting habitat in Eurasia and Africa is as varied as in North America. Although cliffs predominate as nesting sites in many regions, such as the United Kingdom, the Alps, parts of Scandinavia, and Japan (226 Whitfield, D. P., A. H. Fielding, D. R. A. McLeod, and P. F. Haworth (2008). A conservation framework for golden eagles: implications for their conservation and management in Scotland. Scottish Natural Heritage Commissioned Report No.193 (ROAME No. F05AC306) Close , TEK), trees are used and in some regions may even predominate as nesting sites (e.g., other parts of Scandinavia and central Asia; TEK, TAM). Across its wide distribution in the Old World, the main features of typical breeding habitats is that they are mostly open (i.e., low density of trees and low shrub cover) and support medium-sized prey species that Golden Eagle can effectively hunt. Typically, breeding habitats occur in rugged landscapes in the uplands that are remote from intensive human activity; e.g., in the British Isles, mostly open moorland or forests with low tree density near open moorland (2 Watson, J. (2010). The Golden Eagle. Second edition. T. & A. D. Poyser, London, United Kingdom. Close ). In the European Alps and Himalayas, eagles will hunt marmots just above the treeline, but nests on cliffs and in trees in more forested areas at lower elevations (e.g., 227 Glutz von Blotzheim, U. N. (1962). Die Brutvögel der Schweiz - eine Zusammenfassung unserer heutigen Kenntnisse über Verbreitung, Bestandesdichte, Ernährung und Fortpflanzung der seit 1900 in der Schweiz als Brutvögel nachgewiesenen Arten. 2nd edition. Schweizerische Vogelwarte Sempach & Aargauer Tagblatt, Aarau, Switzerland. Close , 47 Cramp, S., and K. E. L. Simmons (Editors) (1980). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Volume 2. Hawks to Bustards. Oxford University Press, Oxford, United Kingdom. Close , 228 Haller, H. (1996). The Golden Eagle in the Grisons: Long-term studies on the population ecology of Aquila chrysaetos in the centre of the Alps. Ornithologischer Beobachter Beiheft 9: 1–167. Close , 229 Ahmed, T., M. Shoeb, P. Chandan, and A. Khan (2016). On the status of the Long-tailed Marmot Marmota caudata (Mammalia: Rodentia: Sciuridae) in Kargil, Ladakh (Indian Trans-Himalaya). Journal of Threatened Taxa 8: 9171–9176 Close ). In Arabia, nests in Prosopis trees surrounded by rather flat desert or semi-deserts (230 Jennings, M. C. (2010). Atlas of the Breeding Birds of Arabia. Fauna of Arabia 25. King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Saudi Wildlife Commission and Senckenberg Forschungsinstitut und Naturmuseum, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia and Frankfurt, Germany. Close ). In the Japanese Alps, uses open areas near treeline (231 Takeuchi, T., S. Shiraki, M. Nashimoto, R. Matsuki, S. Abe, and H. Yatake (2006). Regional and temporal variations in prey taken by golden eagles Aquila chrysaetos during the nestling period in Japan. Ibis 148: 79–87 Close ). Nevertheless, also uses other, rather atypical, habitats that are more forested, flatter or even closer to human activity (TEK, MJM, unpublished observations).

In western North America from northwestern Alaska and Canada to central Mexico, primarily winters in humid temperate and dry ecoregion domains (232 Bailey, R. G. (1989). Explanatory supplement to ecoregions map of the continents. Environmental Conservation 16:307–309. Close ). These birds are seen most frequently in open habitats with native vegetation and less frequently in urban, agricultural, and forested areas (210 Millsap, B. A. (1981). Distributional status of Falconiformes in west central Arizona with notes on ecology, reproductive success, and management. U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau Land Management, Phoenix, AZ, USA. Close , 233 Fischer, D. L., K. L. Ellis, and R. J. Meese (1984). Winter habitat selection of diurnal raptors in central Utah. Raptor Research 18: 98–102. Close , 234 Craig, E. H., T. H. Craig, and L. R. Powers (1986). Habitat use by wintering Golden Eagles and Rough-legged Hawks in southeastern Idaho. Raptor Research 20: 69–71. Close , 176 Marzluff, J. M., S. T. Knick, M. S. Vekasy, L. S. Schueck, and T. J. Zarriello (1997). Spatial use and habitat selection of Golden Eagles in southwestern Idaho. Auk 114(4): 673–687. Close ). Uses sagebrush communities, riparian areas, grasslands, and rolling oak savanna, often areas with low fragmentation and human population density (235 Knight, R. L., J. B. Athearn, J. J. Brueggeman, and A. W. Erickson (1979). Observations on wintering Bald and Golden eagles on the Columbia River, Washington. Murrelet 60: 99–105. Close , 233 Fischer, D. L., K. L. Ellis, and R. J. Meese (1984). Winter habitat selection of diurnal raptors in central Utah. Raptor Research 18: 98–102. Close , 236 Hayden, S. L. (1984). Winter food habits and ecology of Golden and Bald eagles in northeastern Wyoming. M.S. thesis, University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY, USA. Close , 237 Estep, J. A., and R. D. Sculley (1989). Habitat suitability index model; Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) interior Central Coast Ranges of California. Jones and Stokes Associates, Inc., Sacramento, CA, USA. Close , 238 Craig, E. H., M. R. Fuller, T. H. Craig, and F. Huettmann (2018b). Assessment of potential risks from renewable energy development and other anthropogenic factors to wintering Golden Eagles in the western United States. In Machine Learning for Ecology and Sustainable Natural Resource Management (G. Humphries, D. R. Magness, and F. Huettmann, Editors). Springer International Publishing, Cham, pp. 379–407. Close ). Generally, absent from harsh, dry areas (< 20 cm annual precipitation) of the Sonoran Desert and central Nevada, although even these areas occasionally support eagles (239 Duerr, A. E., T. A. Miller, K. L. C. Duerr, M. J. Lanzone, A. Fesnock, and T. E. Katzner (2015b). Landscape-scale distribution and density of raptor populations wintering in anthropogenic-dominated desert landscapes. Biodiversity Conservation 24: 2365–2381. Close ). In Idaho and Montana, wintering habitat is made up of landscapes conducive to updraft with low human population density and limited fragmentation (7 Craig, E. H., T. H. Craig, and M. R. Fuller (2018a). Using TreeNet, a machine learning approach to better understand factors that influence elevated blood lead levels in wintering Golden Eagles in the western United States. In Machine Learning for Ecology and Sustainable Natural Resource Management (G. Humphries, D. R. Magness, and F. Huettmann, Editors). Springer International Publishing, Cham, Switzerland. pp. 243–260. Close ).

Infrequently observed to winter in forests in western North America. Winter habitat east of the Canadian Rockies skirts the northern edge of grasslands and excludes mixed mesophytic and deciduous forest. However, recent modeling of migrants wintering in the western states indicate that coniferous forest habitats may be used more often than previously thought (240 Domenech, R., B. E. Bedrosian, R. H. Crandall, and V. A. Slabe (2015). Space use and habitat selection by adult migrant Golden Eagles wintering in the western United States. Journal of Raptor Research 49(4): 429–440. Close ). Carrion in forested areas may influence patterns of winter distribution (241 Wilmers, C. C., D. R. Stahler, R. L. Crabtree, D. W. Smith, and W. M. Getz (2003). Resource dispersion and consumer dominance: Scavenging at wolf‐ and hunter‐killed carcasses in Greater Yellowstone, USA. Ecology Letters 6: 996–1003. Close , 240 Domenech, R., B. E. Bedrosian, R. H. Crandall, and V. A. Slabe (2015). Space use and habitat selection by adult migrant Golden Eagles wintering in the western United States. Journal of Raptor Research 49(4): 429–440. Close , EHC; T. Craig, personal communication). In the midwestern United States, more frequently seen near reservoirs and wildlife refuges that provide foraging opportunities at winter waterfowl concentrations (153 Wingfield, G. A. (1991). Central plains buteos and Golden Eagle. In Proceedings of the Midwest Raptor Management Symposium and Workshop (B. G. Pendleton and D. L. Krache, Editors). National Wildlife Federation, Washington, DC, USA. pp. 60–68. Close ), but telemetry data show that forested regions are also used (M. Martell, TAM, unpublished data). In Idaho, wintering eagles forage primarily in shrubland and avoid grassland and agriculture, with foraging points concentrated in sagebrush-rabbitbrush (Artemisia–Chrysothamnus) habitat and cliff areas (176 Marzluff, J. M., S. T. Knick, M. S. Vekasy, L. S. Schueck, and T. J. Zarriello (1997). Spatial use and habitat selection of Golden Eagles in southwestern Idaho. Auk 114(4): 673–687. Close ). In this region, the species is common in grazed areas.

In eastern North America, wintering eagles are strongly associated with forested areas with relatively high topographic relief and low human disturbance (144 Miller, T. A., R. P. Brooks, M. J. Lanzone, J. Cooper, K. O’Malley, D. Brandes, A. Duerr, and T. E. Katzner (2017). Summer and winter space use and home range characteristics of Golden Eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) in eastern North America. Condor 119: 697–719. Close ). These include higher elevations of the Appalachian Mountains, Allegheny Plateau, Cumberland Plateau, the Driftless Area of the upper Midwest, and the Ozark Mountains (242 Mehus, S., and M. Martell (2010). A wintering population of Golden Eagles in southwestern Wisconsin and southeastern Minnesota. Passenger Pigeon 72: 135–141. Close , 144 Miller, T. A., R. P. Brooks, M. J. Lanzone, J. Cooper, K. O’Malley, D. Brandes, A. Duerr, and T. E. Katzner (2017). Summer and winter space use and home range characteristics of Golden Eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) in eastern North America. Condor 119: 697–719. Close ). Rarely uses low elevation valleys and, when found in those areas, tends to be observed flying above ridges and slopes. The highest winter densities appear to be in the Ridge and Valley region of the Appalachian Mountains, especially along the Virginia-West Virginia border and into southern Pennsylvania (TEK, TAM). Winter home ranges of 66 eagles tracked in the eastern United States were composed of 79 ± 14% forest (range 6–97%); 15 ± 8% open areas (e.g., grassland, agricultural) (range 0–45%); 1 ± 6% wetlands (range 0–42%); and 4 ± 1% developed lands (range 0–8%) (144 Miller, T. A., R. P. Brooks, M. J. Lanzone, J. Cooper, K. O’Malley, D. Brandes, A. Duerr, and T. E. Katzner (2017). Summer and winter space use and home range characteristics of Golden Eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) in eastern North America. Condor 119: 697–719. Close ). Outside of mountainous areas, eastern Golden Eagles tend to have home ranges with a higher proportion of open areas.

Migration Habitat

In the western United States and Canada, migrating Golden Eagle has been observed hunting during the migration period over wetlands, agricultural areas, and grassy foothills (243 Dekker, D. (1985). Hunting behaviour of Golden Eagles, Aquila chrysaetos, migrating in southwestern Alberta. Canadian Field-Naturalist 99: 383–385. Close ). In western Canada, they select areas with strong thermal activity and updrafts (244 Dekker, D. (1970). Migrations of diurnal birds of prey in the Rocky Mountain foothills west of Cochrane, Alberta. Blue Jay 28: 20–24. Close , 245 Sherrington, P. (1993). Golden Eagle migration in the front ranges of the Alberta Rocky Mountains. Birder's Journal 2: 195–204. Close ).

Eagles tracked by telemetry often follow leading lines, including ridges, coastlines, and rivers (TAM). Migration is concentrated in areas with high topographic relief that support updrafts, especially orographic updrafts. Where these features are lacking, Golden Eagle migrates over flat or featureless terrain, where it depends on thermal updrafts to support soaring flight (186 Brodeur, S., R. Décarie, D. M. Bird, and M. Fuller (1996). Complete migration cycle of Golden Eagles breeding in northern Quebec. Condor 98(2): 293–299. Close , 246 Duerr, A. E., T. A. Miller, M. Lanzone, D. Brandes, J. Cooper, K. O’Malley, C. Maisonneuve, J. A. Tremblay, and T. Katzner (2015). Flight response of slope-soaring birds to seasonal variation in thermal generation. Functional Ecology 29:779–790. Close , 247 Eisaguirre, J. M., T. L. Booms, C. P. Barger, C. L. McIntyre, S. B. Lewis, and G. A. Breed (2018). Local meteorological conditions reroute a migration. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 285: 20181779. Close , TAM).

Perching and Roosting Habitat

Types and utilization of perch sites vary depending on perch availability, the landscape, and time of year. Common perches are on cliffs, bluffs, power poles, or trees (EHC, T. Craig, personal communication). During the nesting season, both males and females use preferred perches near the nest (248 Bergo, G. (1987). Territorial behaviour of Golden Eagles in western Norway. British Birds 80: 361–376. Close ), and the female often roosts on the nest at night (249 Collopy, M. W. (1984). Parental care and feeding ecology of Golden Eagle nestlings. Auk 101: 753–760. Close ). Resident eagles usually perch above cliff nests, but below ridge tops (2 Watson, J. (2010). The Golden Eagle. Second edition. T. & A. D. Poyser, London, United Kingdom. Close ). An adult Golden Eagle used an unoccupied Gyrfalcon (Falco rusticolus) nest as a winter roost north of Nome, Alaska (D. Johnson, personal communication).

In eastern North America, selection of perching sites varies by season and age (250 Duerr, A. E., M. A. Braham, T. A. Miller, J. Cooper, J. T. Anderson, and T. E. Katzner (2019). Roost-and perch-site selection by Golden Eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) in eastern North America. Wilson Journal of Ornithology 131(2): 310. Close ). Eagles select perch sites on steep slopes that faced south in summer and east during migration. Adults show greater preferences for broadleaf forest in summer and for ridges in autumn.

In Scotland, two male Golden Eagles used 87 and 120 different roost sites over the course of 1 and 2 years, respectively (251 Ford, A., J. Taylor, and D. C. Jardine (2019). Observations on the roosting behaviour of adult male Golden Eagles from satellite telemetry. Ringing and Migration 34(1): 38–44 Close ). About 70% of roost sites were used only once and generally on low-wind nights. A small proportion were used very frequently and on nights with stronger winds, suggesting they provided better shelter from the wind.