UPPERCASE: current genusUppercase first letter: generic synonym● and ● See: generic homonymslowercase: species and subspecies●: early names, variants, misspellings‡: extinct†: type speciesGr.: ancient GreekL.: Latin<: derived fromsyn: synonym of/: separates historical and modern geographic namesex: based onTL: type localityOD: original diagnosis (genus) or original description (species)
The reproductive phenology of Greater Flamingo is closely related to rainfall during the months preceding laying. There is one brood, but if it fails during incubation, there may be additional attempts. Greater Flamingo usually breed on muddy substrates, where mud is scraped to construct a mound nest that is elevated above ground level to prevent flooding; the species has also been recorded breeding on sandy or rocky substrates. Clutch size is one. Incubation is carried out by both sexes and lasts 27–36 d. The chicks are precocial and semi-nidifugous and are fed by parents on regurgitated liquid secretion from the upper digestive tract glands. Chicks leave the nest at 7–10 d, and at 10–12 d aggregate in crèches that may include some adults. Fledging occurs at 71–98 d, and chicks leave the breeding site at 80–139 d.
Phenology
Egg-laying dates in Greater Flamingo show geographic variation. A geographical index, computed as the sum of latitude, longitude, and altitude of breeding locations in northwest Africa, the Mediterranean region, and Asia, showed a positive correlation with mean laying dates, indicating that at higher latitudes and elevations, egg laying date occurred later (10
Johnson, A. R., and F. Cézilly (2007). The Greater Flamingo. T. & A. D. Poyser, London, UK
).
The most important factor determining whether breeding occurs at a seasonal wetland is rainfall during the months preceding laying, which affects the water levels in wetlands and determines both the isolation and protection of colonies from terrestrial predators, as well as food availability during the breeding season (129
Rendón-Martos, M. (1996). La laguna de Fuente de Piedra en la dinámica de la población de flamencos (Phoenicopterus ruber roseus) del Mediterráneo occidental. PhD thesis, University of Málaga, Spain.
). Indeed, to trigger breeding, a minimum amount of precipitation at each site is needed: in Fuente de Piedra Lake (Spain) between 1975–1989, there was breeding when the average precipitation between October and February was 339 mm (n = 9); there was no breeding during those years when the average precipitation was 192 mm (n = 7) (221
Rendón, M., J. M. Vargas, and J. M. Ramírez (1991). Dinámica temporal y reproducción del flamenco común (Phoenicopterus ruber roseus) en la laguna de Fuente de Piedra (Sur de España). In Reunión técnica sobre la situación y problemática del flamenco rosa (Phoenicopterus ruber roseus) en el Mediterráneo occidental y Africa noroccidental (M. R. Pintos Martín, S. Prieto Ojeda, M. Rendón Martos, and A. J. Johnson, Editors), Junta de Andalucía, Sevilla. pp. 135–153.
). Further, in this seasonal wetland, between 1984–2007, there was breeding when the mean water depth in March and April was >50 cm; there was no breeding in years with mean water levels <40 cm (228
Rendón-Martos, M., A. Garrido, M. Á. Rendón, and J. M. Ramírez (2009). Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus roseus monitoring and conservation at Fuente de Piedra Lake. Flamingo 1:1-11.
). Minimum precipitation values in the months before laying have been estimated at 400 mm at Etosha Pan (Namibia) (229
Simmons, R. E. (1996). Population declines, viable breeding areas and management solutions for flamingos in southern Africa. Conservation Biology 10:504–514.
) and 300 mm in Tunisia (10
Johnson, A. R., and F. Cézilly (2007). The Greater Flamingo. T. & A. D. Poyser, London, UK
).
Pair Formation
Courtship may occur at wintering sites, up to 700 km from breeding sites (230
Studer-Thiersch, A. (2000). What 19 years' of observation of captive Greater Flamingos suggests about adaptations to breeding under irregular conditions. Waterbirds 23:150-159
). In the Camargue (France), courtship groups last almost six months, between November and May (10
Johnson, A. R., and F. Cézilly (2007). The Greater Flamingo. T. & A. D. Poyser, London, UK
). In Fuente de Piedra Lake, courtship was observed in the first fortnight of January when flamingos started to arrive at the lake to breed, and continued into February (221
Rendón, M., J. M. Vargas, and J. M. Ramírez (1991). Dinámica temporal y reproducción del flamenco común (Phoenicopterus ruber roseus) en la laguna de Fuente de Piedra (Sur de España). In Reunión técnica sobre la situación y problemática del flamenco rosa (Phoenicopterus ruber roseus) en el Mediterráneo occidental y Africa noroccidental (M. R. Pintos Martín, S. Prieto Ojeda, M. Rendón Martos, and A. J. Johnson, Editors), Junta de Andalucía, Sevilla. pp. 135–153.
). In other sites in southern Spain (Guadalquivir and Odiel marshes), courtship groups were recorded between October and April (17
Amat, J. A., M. A. Rendón, J. Garrido-Fernández, A. Garrido, M. Rendón-Martos, and A. Pérez-Gálvez (2011). Greater flamingos Phoenicopterus roseus use uropygial secretions as make-up. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 65(4):665–673.
). Greater Flamingo in captivity in Switzerland started courtship displays in autumn, soon after breeding, and continued through the following months (230
Studer-Thiersch, A. (2000). What 19 years' of observation of captive Greater Flamingos suggests about adaptations to breeding under irregular conditions. Waterbirds 23:150-159
). There is scarce information about courtship phenology outside Europe. Courtship was observed at Lake Elmenteita (Kenya) from January to June (36
Brown, L. H. (1958). The breeding of the Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber at lake Elmenteita, Kenya Colony. Ibis 100:388-420.
).
Copulations take place in the Camargue (France) between January and May (10
Johnson, A. R., and F. Cézilly (2007). The Greater Flamingo. T. & A. D. Poyser, London, UK
). In the case of nest losses, copulations in captive birds may occur a few hours after nest failure, without courtship displays (231
Studer-Thiersch, A. (1974). Die Balz der Flamingogattung Phoenicopterus, unter besonderer Berücksichtigung von Ph. ruber roseus. Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie 36:212–266.
). Copulations at Lake Elmenteita (Kenya) were recorded between 19 and 21 April (36
Brown, L. H. (1958). The breeding of the Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber at lake Elmenteita, Kenya Colony. Ibis 100:388-420.
).
Nest Building
In Fuente de Piedra Lake, the occupation of the colony and the construction of nests has been observed from the first half of February to the first half of March (221
Rendón, M., J. M. Vargas, and J. M. Ramírez (1991). Dinámica temporal y reproducción del flamenco común (Phoenicopterus ruber roseus) en la laguna de Fuente de Piedra (Sur de España). In Reunión técnica sobre la situación y problemática del flamenco rosa (Phoenicopterus ruber roseus) en el Mediterráneo occidental y Africa noroccidental (M. R. Pintos Martín, S. Prieto Ojeda, M. Rendón Martos, and A. J. Johnson, Editors), Junta de Andalucía, Sevilla. pp. 135–153.
). In southern Spain, the establishment of breeding colonies met the criteria of a despotic distribution, in which older and dominant individuals settled at the best sites and started to lay earlier than younger, less dominant individuals, which were forced to use suboptimal sites. The colony sites occupied first had higher breeding success (155
Rendón, M. A., A. Garrido, J. M. Ramírez, M. Rendón-Martos, and J. A. Amat (2001). Despotic establishment of breeding colonies of greater flamingos, Phoenicopterus ruber, in southern Spain. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 50:55–60.
). Related to this pattern of older, dominant individuals settling on the best sites and laying earlier than younger, less dominant individuals, the timing of settlement of individual flamingos at the Fuente de Piedra colony was also age-related. The relationship between the probability of settlement and date of settlement was negative for individuals > 10 years old, but positive for individuals < 8 years old. The relationship between both variables for individuals 8–10 years old was not strong in either direction (155
Rendón, M. A., A. Garrido, J. M. Ramírez, M. Rendón-Martos, and J. A. Amat (2001). Despotic establishment of breeding colonies of greater flamingos, Phoenicopterus ruber, in southern Spain. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 50:55–60.
).
Egg Laying
At Fuente de Piedra Lake, there were interannual variations between 1984–1994 in the dates of the first clutches laid in a colony, which ranged from late February to late March (129
Rendón-Martos, M. (1996). La laguna de Fuente de Piedra en la dinámica de la población de flamencos (Phoenicopterus ruber roseus) del Mediterráneo occidental. PhD thesis, University of Málaga, Spain.
). There was also variation in how long the egg laying period lasted in a given breeding season, being longer in years with high water levels at feeding areas located in the Guadalquivir marshes (129
Rendón-Martos, M. (1996). La laguna de Fuente de Piedra en la dinámica de la población de flamencos (Phoenicopterus ruber roseus) del Mediterráneo occidental. PhD thesis, University of Málaga, Spain.
). In the eight years in which Greater Flamingo nested both at both Fuente de Piedra Lake and in the marshes of the Guadalquivir in southern Spain, the mean date of first clutches were earlier at Fuente de Piedra (16 March ± 15 d SD) than at the Guadalquivir (17 April ± 16 d SD) (155
Rendón, M. A., A. Garrido, J. M. Ramírez, M. Rendón-Martos, and J. A. Amat (2001). Despotic establishment of breeding colonies of greater flamingos, Phoenicopterus ruber, in southern Spain. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 50:55–60.
).
In the Camargue, the timing of breeding is related to flood conditions in the vicinity of the colony (10
Johnson, A. R., and F. Cézilly (2007). The Greater Flamingo. T. & A. D. Poyser, London, UK
); the first clutches are laid in April, and the laying period can last 30–74 d (211
Cézilly, F., and A. R. Johnson (1995). Re-mating between and within breading seasons in the Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber roseus. Ibis 137(4):543–546.
). In Türkiye, laying occurred from early April to mid-June (93
Kirwan, G. M., K. A. Boyla, P. Castell, B. Demirci, M. Özen, H. Welch, and T. Marlow (2008). The Birds of Turkey: the Distribution, Taxonomy and Breeding of Turkish Birds. Christopher Helm, London, UK
). At Ezzemoul (Algeria), egg-laying lasted from mid-May to early June (83
Samraoui, B., A. Ouldjaoui, M. Boulkhssaïm, M. Houhamdi, M. Saheb, and A. Béchet (2006). The first recorded reproduction of the Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus roseus in Algeria: behavioural and ecological aspects. Ostrich 77:153–159.
). In Tunisia, egg-laying was recorded between 10 February and 15 July (80
Isenmann, P., T. Gaultier, A. El Hili, H. Azafzaf, H. Dlensi, and M. Smart (2005). Oiseaux de Tunisie / Birds of Tunisia. Société d’Études Ornithologiques de France, Paris, France. (In French and English.)
). In Morocco, laying was observed at Iriki from the end of March to early May (118
Thévenot, M., R. Vernon, and P. Bergier (2003). The Birds of Morocco: An Annotated Check-list. British Ornithologists’ Union Check-list 20. British Ornithologists’ Union, Tring, UK.
). In Mauritania, laying occurred between late February and mid-June in the Banc d’Arguin National Park and between September and February in the Aftout Es Saheli (77
Isenmann, P., M. Benmergui, P. Browne, A. D. Ba, C. H. Diagana, Y. Diawara, and Z. El Abidine ould Sidaty (2010). Oiseaux de Mauritanie. Birds of Mauritania. Société d’Etudes Ornithologiques de France, Paris. In French and English.
). At both Lake Elmenteita and Lake Nakuru (Kenya), laying was recorded every month except January, September, and December (36
Brown, L. H. (1958). The breeding of the Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber at lake Elmenteita, Kenya Colony. Ibis 100:388-420.
, 213
Brown, L. H., D. Powell-Cotton, and J. B. D. Hopcraft (1973). The breeding of the Greater Flamingo and Great White Pelican in East Africa. Ibis 115:352-374.
). In Bredasdorp (South Africa), laying lasted from early October to late December (14
Uys, C. J., G. J. Broekhuysen, J. Martin, and J. G. Macleod (1963). Observations on the breeding of the Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber Linnaeus in the Bredasdorp District, South Africa. Ostrich 34:129-154.
). In Sua Pan (Bostwana), laying was recorded in November (127
McCulloch, G., and K. Irvine (2004). Breeding of Greater and Lesser Flamingos at Sua Pan, Botswana, 1998–2001. Ostrich 75(4):236–242.
), while in Etosha Pan (Namibia), laying was also initiated in November, but occurred most often in January–February (124
Berry, H. H. (1972). Flamingo breeding on the Etosha Pan, South West Africa, during 1971. Madoqua 1(5):5-31.
, 229
Simmons, R. E. (1996). Population declines, viable breeding areas and management solutions for flamingos in southern Africa. Conservation Biology 10:504–514.
); at both sites laying continued in waves until August (124
Berry, H. H. (1972). Flamingo breeding on the Etosha Pan, South West Africa, during 1971. Madoqua 1(5):5-31.
, 229
Simmons, R. E. (1996). Population declines, viable breeding areas and management solutions for flamingos in southern Africa. Conservation Biology 10:504–514.
, 127
McCulloch, G., and K. Irvine (2004). Breeding of Greater and Lesser Flamingos at Sua Pan, Botswana, 1998–2001. Ostrich 75(4):236–242.
). In Great Rann of Cutch (India), Greater Flamingo nests in the monsoon season, between July and October (232
McCann, C. (1939). The flamingo. Journal of Bombay Natural History Society 41(1):12–38.
). In Afghanistan, laying takes place between May and July (233
Niethammer, J. (1970). Die Flamingos am Am-i-Istada in Afghanistan. Natur und Museum 100:201-210.
, 234
Klockenhoff, H., and G. Madel (1970). Über die Flamingos (Phoenicopterus ruber roseus) der Dasht-r-Nawar in Afghanistan. Journal of Ornithology 111:78-84.
).
First Brood
There is one brood, but if it fails during incubation, there may be additional breeding attempts. In the Camargue (France), during 1991, 481 and 436 individually identified males and females, respectively, were recorded breeding; of these, 170 males and 94 females were recorded attempting a second clutch after failure of the first, and among these, 12 males and 1 female were recorded attempting third clutch after a second failure. Time from failure to relaying varied from 15 to 35 d, and males were more likely than females to renest after failure (211
Cézilly, F., and A. R. Johnson (1995). Re-mating between and within breading seasons in the Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber roseus. Ibis 137(4):543–546.
). Up to six breeding attempts within a season have been recorded in captivity, with relaying intervals of 7–15 d (230
Studer-Thiersch, A. (2000). What 19 years' of observation of captive Greater Flamingos suggests about adaptations to breeding under irregular conditions. Waterbirds 23:150-159
).
Second/Later Broods
In Lake Elmenteita (Kenya), two breeding periods were observed in 1956–1957, one between October and February and the other between April and August (36
Brown, L. H. (1958). The breeding of the Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber at lake Elmenteita, Kenya Colony. Ibis 100:388-420.
). It has been suggested that the same birds were involved during the second breeding as in the first (36
Brown, L. H. (1958). The breeding of the Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber at lake Elmenteita, Kenya Colony. Ibis 100:388-420.
). In Margherita di Savoia saltpans (Italy), reproduction was recorded during 1996 in spring and, in lesser numbers, in autumn (235
Albanese, G., N. Baccetti, A. Magnani, L. Serra, and M. Zetanello (1997). Breeding of the Greater Flamingo Phoenicopetrus ruber roseus in Apulia, S.E. Italy. Alauda 65:202–204.
). Since birds were not marked, it’s not entirely clear if the same birds were actually involved in both waves of breeding.
Nest Site
Breeding colonies are located in wetlands with water levels high enough to protect them from terrestrial predators (129
Rendón-Martos, M. (1996). La laguna de Fuente de Piedra en la dinámica de la población de flamencos (Phoenicopterus ruber roseus) del Mediterráneo occidental. PhD thesis, University of Málaga, Spain.
, 10
Johnson, A. R., and F. Cézilly (2007). The Greater Flamingo. T. & A. D. Poyser, London, UK
). Greater Flamingo usually breeds on muddy substrates, even in very shallow water, where mud is scraped to construct a mound nest elevated above ground level to prevent flooding (see Nest). However, the species has also been recorded breeding on sandy substrates, as in Kazakhstan, and on rocky substrates, where no nests are constructed, as in the Banc d’Arguin (Mauritania), Lake Urmia (Iran), and Lake Elmenteita (Kenya) (76
Valverde, J. A. (1957). Aves del Sáhara Español. Estudio Ecológico del Desierto. Instituto de Estudios Africanos, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Madrid.
, 36
Brown, L. H. (1958). The breeding of the Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber at lake Elmenteita, Kenya Colony. Ibis 100:388-420.
, 10
Johnson, A. R., and F. Cézilly (2007). The Greater Flamingo. T. & A. D. Poyser, London, UK
).
Nest
Construction Process
Males and females both participate in nest building, which takes place a few days before laying (10
Johnson, A. R., and F. Cézilly (2007). The Greater Flamingo. T. & A. D. Poyser, London, UK
). The nest is usually initiated by the male, by scraping mud toward himself, while the role of the female increases throughout nest-building (209
Studer-Thiersch, A. (1975). Basle Zoo. In Flamingos (J. Kear and K. Duplaix-Hall, Editors). T and A&D Poyser, Berkhamsted, UK. pp. 128-130.
). Some additional construction and maintenance may continue during incubation, with parents increasing the height of the nest if the water level around the nest rises (MAR, MR-M, unpublished data). Nest building has been observed late in the breeding season and even after the breeding season, likely by immature birds, but no laying has been recorded in such cases (236
Amat, J. A., and L. García (1975). Nidificación del Phoenicopterus ruber en las marismas del Guadalquivir. Doñana Acta Vertebrata 2:275.
, 10
Johnson, A. R., and F. Cézilly (2007). The Greater Flamingo. T. & A. D. Poyser, London, UK
).
Structure and Composition
Generally, Greater Flamingo builds a truncated cone-shaped mud nest. The size and height of the nest depends on the availability of mud in the surroundings. The species is also able to nest directly on the ground. On rocky islands in Lake Elmenteita (Kenya), nests were similar to those of gulls or shorebirds, and were made of feathers, grasses, stones, and some mud brought in the bill from the nearby lake. Some eggs are also laid in hollows (36
Brown, L. H. (1958). The breeding of the Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber at lake Elmenteita, Kenya Colony. Ibis 100:388-420.
). In Bredasdorp (South Africa), nest mounds were composed of sandy silt which contained some pebbles and feathers (14
Uys, C. J., G. J. Broekhuysen, J. Martin, and J. G. Macleod (1963). Observations on the breeding of the Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber Linnaeus in the Bredasdorp District, South Africa. Ostrich 34:129-154.
). There is usually no lining in the nest (13
Gallet, E. (1949). Les Flamants Roses de Camargue. Payot, Lausanne.
).
Dimensions
Mud availability can explain nest dimensions. In Bredasdorp, the first nests constructed in a colony were larger, whereas those built later were lower and flatter, and many eggs were laid on flat stones (14
Uys, C. J., G. J. Broekhuysen, J. Martin, and J. G. Macleod (1963). Observations on the breeding of the Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber Linnaeus in the Bredasdorp District, South Africa. Ostrich 34:129-154.
).
In general, nests built in muddy substrates have a height of 30 cm, a base diameter 50–60 cm, and a diameter around the rim of 25–40 cm (34
Bauer, K. M. and U. N. Glutz Von Blotzheim. (1966). Handbuch der Vogel Mitteleuropas. Vol. I. Frankfurt am Main: Adademische Verlagsgesellschaft.
). The mud nests built in the Camargue (France) have a diameter of 30–35 cm and a height of 30–40 cm, with a circular trench around the base of the nest up to approximately 20 cm deep. In the Camargue, nests on sand may be only 10–15 cm high (13
Gallet, E. (1949). Les Flamants Roses de Camargue. Payot, Lausanne.
). In Garaet Ezzemoul (Algeria), nests had an internal diameter of 20.0 cm ± 2.1 SD, an external diameter of 36.9 cm ± 2.9 SD, and nest height of 11.9 cm ± 3.8 SD (n = 120); diameter in this study was measured at the top of the nest (83
Samraoui, B., A. Ouldjaoui, M. Boulkhssaïm, M. Houhamdi, M. Saheb, and A. Béchet (2006). The first recorded reproduction of the Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus roseus in Algeria: behavioural and ecological aspects. Ostrich 77:153–159.
). In Bredasdorp, mean nest dimensions were as follows: cup diameter 33.5 cm ± 2.8 SD, base diameter 44.4 cm ± 4.05 SD, and nest height 7.6 cm ± 2.8 SD (n = 25) (14
Uys, C. J., G. J. Broekhuysen, J. Martin, and J. G. Macleod (1963). Observations on the breeding of the Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber Linnaeus in the Bredasdorp District, South Africa. Ostrich 34:129-154.
).
The mean mass of mud conical nests is about 52 kg (16
Ogilvie, M., and C. Ogilvie (1986). Flamingos. Alan Sutton, Gloucester, UK.
).
Maintenance or Reuse of Nests
Nest reuse by different pairs within breeding seasons may be frequent, as in Fuente de Piedra Lake, where an average of 17.00% ± 21.87% SD of nests were reoccupied each year from 1985–1994 (range 0–56%, n = 7) (129
Rendón-Martos, M. (1996). La laguna de Fuente de Piedra en la dinámica de la población de flamencos (Phoenicopterus ruber roseus) del Mediterráneo occidental. PhD thesis, University of Málaga, Spain.
). Nest reuse between breeding seasons is also frequent, when old nests are repaired (14
Uys, C. J., G. J. Broekhuysen, J. Martin, and J. G. Macleod (1963). Observations on the breeding of the Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber Linnaeus in the Bredasdorp District, South Africa. Ostrich 34:129-154.
, 124
Berry, H. H. (1972). Flamingo breeding on the Etosha Pan, South West Africa, during 1971. Madoqua 1(5):5-31.
, 129
Rendón-Martos, M. (1996). La laguna de Fuente de Piedra en la dinámica de la población de flamencos (Phoenicopterus ruber roseus) del Mediterráneo occidental. PhD thesis, University of Málaga, Spain.
).
Eggs
Greater Flamingo is considered a partial capital breeder, in which the resources for egg formation are acquired both in wintering and breeding sites (237
Rendón, M. A., M. Rendón-Martos, A. Garrido, and J. A. Amat (2011). Greater Flamingos Phoenicopterus roseus are partial capital breeders. Journal of Avian Biology 42:210–213.
).
Shape
Eggs have an elongate oval shape (238
Schönwetter, M. (1960). Handbuch der Oologie. Band 1. Lieferung 2. Akademie Verlag, Berlin.
, 14
Uys, C. J., G. J. Broekhuysen, J. Martin, and J. G. Macleod (1963). Observations on the breeding of the Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber Linnaeus in the Bredasdorp District, South Africa. Ostrich 34:129-154.
). The estimated values of elongation, pointedness, and polar asymmetry for eggs are 1.748, 0.539, and 1.348, respectively (239
Biggins, J. D., J. E. Thompson, and T. R. Birkhead (2018). Accurately quantifying the shape of birds’ eggs. Ecology and Evolution 8(19):9728–9738.
).
Size
Across multiple populations, the mean length and width of eggs was 88.8 x 54.6 mm (n = 100; 29
Witherby, H. F., F. C. R. Jourdain, N. F. Ticehurst, and B. W. Tucker (1939). The Handbook of British Birds. Volume 3. H. F. & G. Witherby, London, UK.
).Across its range, egg size does not vary much in different populations.In the Camargue, mean egg size was 89.6 mm (range 81.1–105.0) x 55.2 mm (range 49.6–61.6) (n = 120; 240
Johnson, A. R. (1997). Phoenicopterus ruber Greater Flamingo. BWP Update. The Journal of Birds of the Western Palearctic 1(1):15–23.
); in Garaet Ezzemoul (Algeria), mean egg size was 89.5 mm ± 4.6 SD x 54.0 mm ± 2.0 SD (n = 60; 83
Samraoui, B., A. Ouldjaoui, M. Boulkhssaïm, M. Houhamdi, M. Saheb, and A. Béchet (2006). The first recorded reproduction of the Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus roseus in Algeria: behavioural and ecological aspects. Ostrich 77:153–159.
);in Lake Elmenteita (Kenya), mean egg size was 89.7 x 56.4 mm (n = 25; 36
Brown, L. H. (1958). The breeding of the Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber at lake Elmenteita, Kenya Colony. Ibis 100:388-420.
); in Lake Urmia (Iran), mean egg size was 88 x 52 mm (n = 38; 31
Ashtiani, M. A. A. Z. (1977). Breeding biology of the Geater Flamingo (Phoenicopterus ruber roseus) in Lake Rezaiyeh National Park, Iran. M. S. thesis, University of Michigan.
); and in Bredasdorp (South Africa), mean egg size was 88.3 cm ± 6.3 SD x 53.9 cm ± 2.1 SD (n = 95; 14
Uys, C. J., G. J. Broekhuysen, J. Martin, and J. G. Macleod (1963). Observations on the breeding of the Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber Linnaeus in the Bredasdorp District, South Africa. Ostrich 34:129-154.
).
Mass
In a sample from the Camargue, mean egg mass was 172.9 g (range 153–195 g, n = 16) (10
Johnson, A. R., and F. Cézilly (2007). The Greater Flamingo. T. & A. D. Poyser, London, UK
).
Volume
In a sample of eggs from captive birds at Slimbridge (United Kingdom), mean volume was 145.2 cm3 ± 0.83 SE (range 112.9–174.5, n = 217) (241
Jarrett, N., V. Mason, L. Wright, and V. Levassor (2003). Using egg density and egg mass techniques for incubation stage assessment to predict hatch dates of Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber roseus eggs. Wildfowl 54:131–142.
).
Eggshell Thickness
Schönwetter (238
Schönwetter, M. (1960). Handbuch der Oologie. Band 1. Lieferung 2. Akademie Verlag, Berlin.
) reported a value of 0.63 mm for eggshell thickness. In a sample of 10 eggs from Fuente de Piedra Lake (Spain), the eggshell thickness was 0.66 mm ± 0.007 SE, while cuticle thickness was 0.068 mm ± 0.008 SE (242
D’Alba, L., R. Torres, G. I. N. Waterhouse, C. Eliason, M. E. Hauber, and M. D. Shawkey (2017). What does the eggshell cuticle do? A functional comparison of avian eggshell cuticles. Physiological and Biochemical Zoology 90:588–599.
).
Color and Surface Texture
Eggs are white, with a chalky coating of white, which becomes heavily soiled from lime during incubation (34
Bauer, K. M. and U. N. Glutz Von Blotzheim. (1966). Handbuch der Vogel Mitteleuropas. Vol. I. Frankfurt am Main: Adademische Verlagsgesellschaft.
, 229
Simmons, R. E. (1996). Population declines, viable breeding areas and management solutions for flamingos in southern Africa. Conservation Biology 10:504–514.
). In Lake Elmenteita (Kenya), eggs were described as pale bluish (36
Brown, L. H. (1958). The breeding of the Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber at lake Elmenteita, Kenya Colony. Ibis 100:388-420.
).
The cuticle of the eggshell largely consists of mineralized nanospheres, and the transition between the calcitic shell and the nanospheres is abrupt (243
Board, R. G. (1981). The microstructure of avian eggshells adaptive significance and practical implications in aviculture. Wildfowl 32:132–136.
). The nanospheres are rich in sulfur and phosphorus as well as calcium (243
Board, R. G. (1981). The microstructure of avian eggshells adaptive significance and practical implications in aviculture. Wildfowl 32:132–136.
). In 10 eggs from Fuente de Piedra Lake, mean nanosphere diameter was 785.86 nm ± 30.16 SE (242
D’Alba, L., R. Torres, G. I. N. Waterhouse, C. Eliason, M. E. Hauber, and M. D. Shawkey (2017). What does the eggshell cuticle do? A functional comparison of avian eggshell cuticles. Physiological and Biochemical Zoology 90:588–599.
). The layer of nanospheres on the outer surface of the eggshell is considered a resistance barrier to prevent bacterial penetration (243
Board, R. G. (1981). The microstructure of avian eggshells adaptive significance and practical implications in aviculture. Wildfowl 32:132–136.
, 242
D’Alba, L., R. Torres, G. I. N. Waterhouse, C. Eliason, M. E. Hauber, and M. D. Shawkey (2017). What does the eggshell cuticle do? A functional comparison of avian eggshell cuticles. Physiological and Biochemical Zoology 90:588–599.
).
The eggshell has a strongly hydrophobic surface in response to highly wet incubation environments (244
Attard, M. R., J. Bowen, R. Corado, L. S. Hall, R. A. Dorey, and S. J. Portugal (2021). Ecological drivers of eggshell wettability in birds. Journal of the Royal Society Interface 18(183):20210488.
).
Clutch Size
One egg. Some nests may contain two eggs and rarely three eggs, however these are likely are the result of more than one female laying in the same nest during attempts of nest usurpation or of female-female pairs laying in the same nest (see Sexual Behavior: Brood Parasitism of Conspecifics).
Incubation
Incubation Period
Incubation has been reported as lasting 27–31 d (34
Bauer, K. M. and U. N. Glutz Von Blotzheim. (1966). Handbuch der Vogel Mitteleuropas. Vol. I. Frankfurt am Main: Adademische Verlagsgesellschaft.
), 27–36 d (4
Cramp, S., and K. E. L. Simmons, Editors (1977). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Volume 1. Ostrich to Ducks. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.
), or about 29 d (10
Johnson, A. R., and F. Cézilly (2007). The Greater Flamingo. T. & A. D. Poyser, London, UK
) by different sources.
Parental Behavior
Incubation is shared by both sexes (36
Brown, L. H. (1958). The breeding of the Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber at lake Elmenteita, Kenya Colony. Ibis 100:388-420.
). One adult remains lying on the egg at all times and only occasionally rises to turn the egg and/or preen, while the other adult forages (10
Johnson, A. R., and F. Cézilly (2007). The Greater Flamingo. T. & A. D. Poyser, London, UK
). The periods of continuous incubation in 13 focal nests from Fuente de Piedra Lake (Spain) were significantly longer in males (2.91 d ± 0.20 SE) than in females (2.37 d ± 0.18 SE) (202
Rendón-Martos, M., J. M. Vargas, M. A. Rendón, A. Garrido, and J. M. Ramírez (2000). Nocturnal movements of breeding greater flamingos in southern Spain. Waterbirds 23(Special Publication 1):9–19.
). There are no ceremonies associated with nest relief (36
Brown, L. H. (1958). The breeding of the Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber at lake Elmenteita, Kenya Colony. Ibis 100:388-420.
). Adults may shake the mud off their feet before an incubation shift (124
Berry, H. H. (1972). Flamingo breeding on the Etosha Pan, South West Africa, during 1971. Madoqua 1(5):5-31.
). Unattended nests could be predated by gulls or displaced outside the nest bowl by other flamingos searching for a nesting site (215
Salathé, T. (1983). La predation du flamant rose Phoenicopterus ruber roseus par le goeland leucophée Larus cachinnans en Camargue. Revue d'Ecologie (La Terre et la Vie) 37:87-115.
).
In the Camargue (France), at successful nests, one parent was incubating for 1–4 d while the other parent was feeding, but at unsuccessful nests, one parent was left with the egg for 9.5 d on average while the other was feeding (245
Cézilly, F. (1993). Nest desertion in the Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber roseus. Animal Behaviour 45(5):1038–1040.
). Observations on 19 focal nests showed that in 9 nests that were deserted, the males participated more in incubation than in 10 nests that were successful. In 18 out of 22 nests that were deserted, the females had deserted the nest (245
Cézilly, F. (1993). Nest desertion in the Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber roseus. Animal Behaviour 45(5):1038–1040.
).
Hatching
Shell Breaking and Emergence
Hatching occurs at least 24 h after the first crack is made in the shell (36
Brown, L. H. (1958). The breeding of the Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber at lake Elmenteita, Kenya Colony. Ibis 100:388-420.
), although in some cases, hatching may last up to 48 h (198
Studer-Thiersch, A. (2017). Reproductive biology and parenting behavior. In Flamingos: Behavior, Biology, and Relationship with Humans (M. Anderson, Editor), Nova Science Publishers, New York, NY. pp. 181–197.
).
Parental Assistance and Disposal of Eggshells
During hatching, the adult removes shell fragments with its beak and then places itself on the chick (213
Brown, L. H., D. Powell-Cotton, and J. B. D. Hopcraft (1973). The breeding of the Greater Flamingo and Great White Pelican in East Africa. Ibis 115:352-374.
).
Young Birds
Condition at Hatching
Chicks are precocial and semi-nidifugous at hatching (4
Cramp, S., and K. E. L. Simmons, Editors (1977). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Volume 1. Ostrich to Ducks. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.
). Newly hatched chicks average 225 mm in total length (246
Fjeldså, J. (1977). Guide to the Young of European Precocial Birds. Skarv Nature Publications, Tisvildeleje, Denmark.
). The bill is straight at hatchling, not curved as in the adult (14
Uys, C. J., G. J. Broekhuysen, J. Martin, and J. G. Macleod (1963). Observations on the breeding of the Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber Linnaeus in the Bredasdorp District, South Africa. Ostrich 34:129-154.
).
Growth and Development
At 2–3 d of age, the chick can stand and move out of the nest (36
Brown, L. H. (1958). The breeding of the Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber at lake Elmenteita, Kenya Colony. Ibis 100:388-420.
). At 25 d of age, the chick is half the size of the adult female. At 39 d, the bill is curved (14
Uys, C. J., G. J. Broekhuysen, J. Martin, and J. G. Macleod (1963). Observations on the breeding of the Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber Linnaeus in the Bredasdorp District, South Africa. Ostrich 34:129-154.
). Body mass and tarsus length continue to increase after juveniles attain flight (10
Johnson, A. R., and F. Cézilly (2007). The Greater Flamingo. T. & A. D. Poyser, London, UK
). Chicks can swim at an age of ca. 10 d and start flapping wings at 60–70 d (124
Berry, H. H. (1972). Flamingo breeding on the Etosha Pan, South West Africa, during 1971. Madoqua 1(5):5-31.
). Studer-Thiersch (230
Studer-Thiersch, A. (2000). What 19 years' of observation of captive Greater Flamingos suggests about adaptations to breeding under irregular conditions. Waterbirds 23:150-159
) reported for captive Greater Flamingo that 95–100% of the definitive wing length was attained when the chicks were able to fly, but at this stage the tarsi were shorter than in adults. Fledgling females (n = 10) reached 90% of their definitive tarsus length at the time of the first flight, but fledgling males only reached 80% of their definitive tarsus length (n = 13).
Parental Care
Brooding
The chick remains in the nest for 7–10 d where it is attended by the brooding adult, usually underwing (14
Uys, C. J., G. J. Broekhuysen, J. Martin, and J. G. Macleod (1963). Observations on the breeding of the Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber Linnaeus in the Bredasdorp District, South Africa. Ostrich 34:129-154.
, 247
Brown, L. H., E. K. Urban, and K. Newman (1982). The Birds of Africa. Volume 1. Academic Press, London, UK and New York, USA.
, 248
Tourenq, C., A. R. Johnson, and A. Gallo (1995). Adult aggressiveness and crèching behavior in the Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber roseus. Colonial Waterbirds 18:216–221.
). In 13 focal nests from Fuente de Piedra Lake (Spain), the periods of continuous brooding of small chicks were similar in males (1.61 d ± 0.12 SE) and females (1.58 days ± 0.12 SE) (202
Rendón-Martos, M., J. M. Vargas, M. A. Rendón, A. Garrido, and J. M. Ramírez (2000). Nocturnal movements of breeding greater flamingos in southern Spain. Waterbirds 23(Special Publication 1):9–19.
).
From 7–9 d of age, chicks begin to move around and show exploratory behavior in the colony. They are followed by their parents, who show increased aggressive behavior towards other adults and chicks. When chicks are integrated into crèches, parental aggressiveness decreases to its lowest levels, and brooding by parents ceases (248
Tourenq, C., A. R. Johnson, and A. Gallo (1995). Adult aggressiveness and crèching behavior in the Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber roseus. Colonial Waterbirds 18:216–221.
).
Feeding
Chicks are fed on a regurgitated liquid secretion, referred to as crop milk, from glands in the upper digestive tract (249
Lang, E. M. (1963). Flamingos raise their young on a liquid containing blood. Experientia 19:532–533.
). This secretion is rich in proteins and fat and contains an appreciable amount of glucose, as well as carotenoids and blood from adults (250
Lang, E. M., A. Thiersch, H. Thommen, and H. Wackernagel (1962). Was füttern die Flamingos (Phoenicopterus ruber) ihren Jungen? Ornithologische Beobachter 59:173–176.
, 249
Lang, E. M. (1963). Flamingos raise their young on a liquid containing blood. Experientia 19:532–533.
). Analyses of stable isotopes in feedings collected from the crops of chicks indicated that male parents’ secretions were more enriched in 15N than those of females, while no sex-related parental differences were found in 13C. 15N values in male secretions suggest that males feed on prey of higher trophic levels than those of females; the effects that this has on chicks have not been studied (251
Rendón, M. A., A. Garrido, M. Rendón-Martos, J. M. Ramírez, and J. A. Amat (2014). Assessing sex-related chick provisioning in greater flamingo Phoenicopterus roseus parents using capture-recapture models. Journal of Animal Ecology 83:479–490.
).
Parents secrete crop milk into the bill of the chick, with the tip of the parent’s bill contacting the tip of the chick’s mandible (252
Lomont, H. (1953). Sur le comportement nourricier de Phoenicopterus ruber roseus Pallas. Vie et Milieu 4:713–717.
, 14
Uys, C. J., G. J. Broekhuysen, J. Martin, and J. G. Macleod (1963). Observations on the breeding of the Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber Linnaeus in the Bredasdorp District, South Africa. Ostrich 34:129-154.
, 10
Johnson, A. R., and F. Cézilly (2007). The Greater Flamingo. T. & A. D. Poyser, London, UK
). Chicks store this food in their crops, which protrude outwards, after which the food takes a mean of 15 h ± 4 SD (n = 8) to be gradually digested in chicks over 7 weeks old (253
Rendón, M. A., Garrido, A., Guerrero, J. C., , Rendón-Martos, M. and Amat, J. A. (2012). Crop size as an index of chick provisioning in the Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus roseus. Ibis 154:379–388.
). The feedings of chicks >30 d old represent on average 18% of chick body mass when the crop is full (253
Rendón, M. A., Garrido, A., Guerrero, J. C., , Rendón-Martos, M. and Amat, J. A. (2012). Crop size as an index of chick provisioning in the Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus roseus. Ibis 154:379–388.
). Analyses of blood chemistry values of chicks from Fuente de Piedra between 1998–2001 indicated that there was interannual variation in the quality of food received, and that chicks experienced fasting periods, which had effects on their body condition (254
Amat, J. A., F. Hortas, G. M. Arroyo, M. A. Rendón, J. M. Ramírez, M. Rendón-Martos, A. Pérez-Hurtado, and A. Garrido (2007). Interannual variations in feeding frequencies and food quality of Greater Flamingo chicks (Phoenicopterus roseus): evidence from plasma chemistry and effects on body condition. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology A 147:569–576.
).
In the Camargue, mean feeding bout duration was 11–14 min in chicks 14–95 d old (n = 37). The duration of these feeding bouts by males, but not those of females, increased with with chick age (255
Cézilly, F., C. Tourenq, and A. Johnson (1994). Variation in parental with offspring age in the Greater Flamingo. The Condor 96:809-812.
). In Fuente de Piedra Lake, however, both male and female parents increase the feeding bouts with chick age (MAR, MR-M, JAA, unpublished data). Average feeding times varied from 5.5 min for chicks 2 weeks old (n = 10) to 11 min for chicks >11 weeks old (n = 94) (MAR, MR-M, JAA, unpublished data). At this lake, some chicks pursued the adults after being fed (MAR, MR-M, JAA, unpublished data). The functional significance of these post-feeding chases is unknown.
During the chick provisioning period, the adult Greater Flamingo uses wetlands around its colony site. In the Camargue, most breeding birds are observed foraging 5–10 km around the breeding site, but a few have been recorded up to 70 km from the breeding site. Because the foraging areas are close to the breeding site, it has been suggested that adults breeding in the Camargue feed their chicks daily (10
Johnson, A. R., and F. Cézilly (2007). The Greater Flamingo. T. & A. D. Poyser, London, UK
). However, patterns of movement and feeding are different for Greater Flamingo breeding at other sites, such as Fuente de Piedra Lake. Because the lake usually dries out in most years before the chicks are able to fly, adults must move to other wetlands for foraging, which are located 120–390 km from Fuente de Piedra (202
Rendón-Martos, M., J. M. Vargas, M. A. Rendón, A. Garrido, and J. M. Ramírez (2000). Nocturnal movements of breeding greater flamingos in southern Spain. Waterbirds 23(Special Publication 1):9–19.
, 163
Amat, J. A., M. A. Rendón, M. Rendón-Martos, A. Garrido, and J. M. Ramírez (2005). Ranging behaviour of greater flamingos during the breeding and post-breeding periods: linking connectivity to biological processes. Biological Conservation 125(2):183–192.
). Individual adults remain in the foraging wetlands for 4–9 d before returning to Fuente de Piedra to feed their chicks (163
Amat, J. A., M. A. Rendón, M. Rendón-Martos, A. Garrido, and J. M. Ramírez (2005). Ranging behaviour of greater flamingos during the breeding and post-breeding periods: linking connectivity to biological processes. Biological Conservation 125(2):183–192.
, 251
Rendón, M. A., A. Garrido, M. Rendón-Martos, J. M. Ramírez, and J. A. Amat (2014). Assessing sex-related chick provisioning in greater flamingo Phoenicopterus roseus parents using capture-recapture models. Journal of Animal Ecology 83:479–490.
). All such movements are nocturnal (202
Rendón-Martos, M., J. M. Vargas, M. A. Rendón, A. Garrido, and J. M. Ramírez (2000). Nocturnal movements of breeding greater flamingos in southern Spain. Waterbirds 23(Special Publication 1):9–19.
, 251
Rendón, M. A., A. Garrido, M. Rendón-Martos, J. M. Ramírez, and J. A. Amat (2014). Assessing sex-related chick provisioning in greater flamingo Phoenicopterus roseus parents using capture-recapture models. Journal of Animal Ecology 83:479–490.
). The adults usually remain in the lake for one day, though some of them may fly back to foraging areas the same night (202
Rendón-Martos, M., J. M. Vargas, M. A. Rendón, A. Garrido, and J. M. Ramírez (2000). Nocturnal movements of breeding greater flamingos in southern Spain. Waterbirds 23(Special Publication 1):9–19.
, 163
Amat, J. A., M. A. Rendón, M. Rendón-Martos, A. Garrido, and J. M. Ramírez (2005). Ranging behaviour of greater flamingos during the breeding and post-breeding periods: linking connectivity to biological processes. Biological Conservation 125(2):183–192.
).
At Fuente de Piedra Lake, the percentage of chicks that were not fed daily, as determined by empty crops in the early morning, varied between 25–40% during 1998–2009 (253
Rendón, M. A., Garrido, A., Guerrero, J. C., , Rendón-Martos, M. and Amat, J. A. (2012). Crop size as an index of chick provisioning in the Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus roseus. Ibis 154:379–388.
). The chicks in Fuente de Piedra were fed more frequently in years when water levels in the foraging areas of adults were higher (170
Rendón, M. A. (2016). Cuidado parental en el Flamenco Común (Phoenicopterus roseus) en un humedal temporal. PhD thesis, University of Málaga.
). On average, females stayed in the feeding areas for shorter periods (7.5 d) than males (9.2 d) between visits to the lake to feed the chicks. From the monitoring of the crop sizes of chicks recorded in this colony, it has been estimated that one third of chicks are fed during the night and another third in the evening (253
Rendón, M. A., Garrido, A., Guerrero, J. C., , Rendón-Martos, M. and Amat, J. A. (2012). Crop size as an index of chick provisioning in the Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus roseus. Ibis 154:379–388.
).
Greater Flamingo chicks are not fed daily when they are in the crèches (202
Rendón-Martos, M., J. M. Vargas, M. A. Rendón, A. Garrido, and J. M. Ramírez (2000). Nocturnal movements of breeding greater flamingos in southern Spain. Waterbirds 23(Special Publication 1):9–19.
, 254
Amat, J. A., F. Hortas, G. M. Arroyo, M. A. Rendón, J. M. Ramírez, M. Rendón-Martos, A. Pérez-Hurtado, and A. Garrido (2007). Interannual variations in feeding frequencies and food quality of Greater Flamingo chicks (Phoenicopterus roseus): evidence from plasma chemistry and effects on body condition. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology A 147:569–576.
, 10
Johnson, A. R., and F. Cézilly (2007). The Greater Flamingo. T. & A. D. Poyser, London, UK
, 251
Rendón, M. A., A. Garrido, M. Rendón-Martos, J. M. Ramírez, and J. A. Amat (2014). Assessing sex-related chick provisioning in greater flamingo Phoenicopterus roseus parents using capture-recapture models. Journal of Animal Ecology 83:479–490.
). In Fuente de Piedra Lake (Spain), it has been estimated that chicks are fed on average every 4 d by one of their parents (MAR, MR-M, JAA, unpublished data). When the chicks are in crèches, they may eat eggshell remains on the breeding islands (40
Hockey, P. A. R., W. R. J. Dean, and P. G. Ryan (2005). Roberts’ Birds of Southern Africa. 7th edition. Trustees of the John Voelcker Bird Book Fund, Cape Town.
, MAR, MR-M, JAA, unpublished data).
In the Camargue (France), mean fledging date was at 80 d of age (range 71–98 d, n = 19) (10
Johnson, A. R., and F. Cézilly (2007). The Greater Flamingo. T. & A. D. Poyser, London, UK
). Observations at other breeding sites show fledging dates within the range observed in the Camargue (36
Brown, L. H. (1958). The breeding of the Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber at lake Elmenteita, Kenya Colony. Ibis 100:388-420.
, 14
Uys, C. J., G. J. Broekhuysen, J. Martin, and J. G. Macleod (1963). Observations on the breeding of the Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber Linnaeus in the Bredasdorp District, South Africa. Ostrich 34:129-154.
, 256
Rendón-Martos, M., J. M. Vargas, and J. M. Ramírez (1991). Dinámica temporal y reproducción del Flamenco Común (Phoenicopterus ruber roseus Pallas) en la Laguna de Fuente de Piedra (sur de España). In Reunión técnica sobre la situación y problemática del Flamenco rosa Phoenicopterus ruber roseus en el Mediterráneo Occidental y Africa Noroccidental. Junta de Andalucía, Sevilla. pp. 135-153.
). Fledging occurred at an older age in a year with lower water levels in Fuente de Piedra Lake (Spain) (129
Rendón-Martos, M. (1996). La laguna de Fuente de Piedra en la dinámica de la población de flamencos (Phoenicopterus ruber roseus) del Mediterráneo occidental. PhD thesis, University of Málaga, Spain.
).
Association with Parents or Other Young
In the Camargue (France), chicks leave the nest and aggregate in crèches when 13–19 d old (248
Tourenq, C., A. R. Johnson, and A. Gallo (1995). Adult aggressiveness and crèching behavior in the Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber roseus. Colonial Waterbirds 18:216–221.
). At Bredasdorp (South Africa), chicks were observed wandering in the colony from 10 d of age, and at 17 d of age aggregated in a crèche of 350 young with 20–30 adults (14
Uys, C. J., G. J. Broekhuysen, J. Martin, and J. G. Macleod (1963). Observations on the breeding of the Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber Linnaeus in the Bredasdorp District, South Africa. Ostrich 34:129-154.
). In Lake Elmenteita (Kenya), on 24 December, a crèche of 800 chicks about 30 d old was observed with 10 adults. On 1 September, a crèche of over 5,000 chicks 60–70 d old was recorded with 9 adults (36
Brown, L. H. (1958). The breeding of the Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber at lake Elmenteita, Kenya Colony. Ibis 100:388-420.
).
It has been suggested that adults attending crèches had lost their own chicks (213
Brown, L. H., D. Powell-Cotton, and J. B. D. Hopcraft (1973). The breeding of the Greater Flamingo and Great White Pelican in East Africa. Ibis 115:352-374.
). At least in Fuente de Piedra Lake (Spain), this seems unlikely during dry years, as there is no food in the lake and the adults that remain during diurnal hours beside the crèche are likely related to chicks, since such adults feed chicks (170
Rendón, M. A. (2016). Cuidado parental en el Flamenco Común (Phoenicopterus roseus) en un humedal temporal. PhD thesis, University of Málaga.
).
Ability to get Around, Feed, and Care for Self
Chicks fed independently in Bredasdorp (South Africa) when they were 85 d old (14
Uys, C. J., G. J. Broekhuysen, J. Martin, and J. G. Macleod (1963). Observations on the breeding of the Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber Linnaeus in the Bredasdorp District, South Africa. Ostrich 34:129-154.
). Fledglings are rarely fed by adults once they are capable of flight (230
Studer-Thiersch, A. (2000). What 19 years' of observation of captive Greater Flamingos suggests about adaptations to breeding under irregular conditions. Waterbirds 23:150-159
). A fledgling hatched in Fuente de Piedra Lake was observed being fed by an adult in the marshes of the Guadalquivir, about 130 km from the natal site (JAA, unpublished data).
Immature Stage
At Fuente de Piedra Lake (Spain), fledglings leave the site when they are 80–95 d old (221
Rendón, M., J. M. Vargas, and J. M. Ramírez (1991). Dinámica temporal y reproducción del flamenco común (Phoenicopterus ruber roseus) en la laguna de Fuente de Piedra (Sur de España). In Reunión técnica sobre la situación y problemática del flamenco rosa (Phoenicopterus ruber roseus) en el Mediterráneo occidental y Africa noroccidental (M. R. Pintos Martín, S. Prieto Ojeda, M. Rendón Martos, and A. J. Johnson, Editors), Junta de Andalucía, Sevilla. pp. 135–153.
). In Bredasdorp, fledglings dispersed at 122–139 d old (14
Uys, C. J., G. J. Broekhuysen, J. Martin, and J. G. Macleod (1963). Observations on the breeding of the Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber Linnaeus in the Bredasdorp District, South Africa. Ostrich 34:129-154.
). The immature stage extends until the age at which individuals may potentially breed, at 3 y, but the first breeding attempt can be later (4
Cramp, S., and K. E. L. Simmons, Editors (1977). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Volume 1. Ostrich to Ducks. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.
; see Measures of Breeding Activity).
Body mass and tarsus length continue to increase after fledging and until the adult stage is reached (10
Johnson, A. R., and F. Cézilly (2007). The Greater Flamingo. T. & A. D. Poyser, London, UK
). In juveniles found dead at the Camargue during a cold spell in January 1985, wing length of males and females had a mean value of 420.16 mm ± 16.02 SD (n = 62) and 401.20 mm ± 16.92 SD (n = 60), respectively, while tarsus length had a mean value of 265.39 mm ± 28.90 SD (n = 62) and 249.26 mm ± 22.70 SD (n = 61), respectively. In immatures also found dead at the Camargue during the same cold spell, wing length of males and females had a mean value of 423.55 mm ± 14.52 SD (n = 324) and 393.26 mm ± 12.28 SD (n = 250), respectively, while mean tarsus length of males and females was 325.97 mm ± 26.31 SD (n = 321) and 274.73 mm ± 19.51 SD (n = 250), respectively. Mean wing length of adult males and females was 433 mm and 400 mm, respectively, while mean tarsus length of adult males and females was 338 mm and 280 mm, respectively, during this same period (10
Johnson, A. R., and F. Cézilly (2007). The Greater Flamingo. T. & A. D. Poyser, London, UK
).
Recommended Citation
Salvador, A., M. Á. Rendón, J. A. Amat, and M. Rendón-Martos (2024). Greater Flamingo (Phoenicopterus roseus), version 3.0. In Birds of the World (S. M. Billerman and B. K. Keeney, Editors). Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, NY, USA. https://doi.org/10.2173/bow.grefla3.03