Habitat

Greater Flamingo breeds in shallow wetlands that are either saline or alkaline, such as salt lakes, coastal lagoons, intertidal mudflats, and saltworks. While wintering, it can be found in the same habitat types, but also in coastal areas, estuaries, deltas, marshes, rice fields, aquaculture ponds, and reservoirs.

Greater Flamingo generally breeds in shallow (< 1 m deep), open wetlands that have islets for nesting. The water is usually saline or alkaline, and freshwater wetlands are rarely used for breeding. The vegetation is usually very sparse, and is typically halophilic. It uses natural wetlands for nesting, including inland and coastal sites such as salt lakes, salt pans, coastal lagoons, deltas, intertidal mudflats, coastal islets, and river mouths, as well as man-made habitats, such as saltworks, sewage treatment plants, and inland reservoirs (124 Berry, H. H. (1972). Flamingo breeding on the Etosha Pan, South West Africa, during 1971. Madoqua 1(5):5-31. Close , 4 Cramp, S., and K. E. L. Simmons, Editors (1977). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Volume 1. Ostrich to Ducks. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close , 125 Rainbolt, R. E., Augeri, D. M., Pierce, S. M. and Bergeson, M. T. (1997). Greater Flamingos breed on Aldabra Atoll, Republic of Seychelles. Wilson Bulletin. 109(2):351–353. Close , 126 Williams, A. J., C. Velásquez (1997). Greater Flamingo. In The Atlas of Southern African Birds. Vol. 1 (J. A. Harrison, D. G. Allen, L. G. Underhill, M. Herremans, A. J. Trees, V Parker, and C. J. Brown, Editors), BirdLife South Africa, Johannesburg, South Africa. pp. 112-113. Close , 127 McCulloch, G., and K. Irvine (2004). Breeding of Greater and Lesser Flamingos at Sua Pan, Botswana, 1998–2001. Ostrich 75(4):236–242. Close , 83 Samraoui, B., A. Ouldjaoui, M. Boulkhssaïm, M. Houhamdi, M. Saheb, and A. Béchet (2006). The first recorded reproduction of the Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus roseus in Algeria: behavioural and ecological aspects. Ostrich 77:153–159. Close , 10 Johnson, A. R., and F. Cézilly (2007). The Greater Flamingo. T. & A. D. Poyser, London, UK Close , 128 Parasharya, B. M., and I. R. Gadhvi (2020). First report of successful breeding of Greater Flamingo in the Gulf of Khambhat, India-outside its traditional nesting range. Indian Birds 15(5):136–139. Close ).

It usually breeds on muddy substrates, where mud is scraped to construct a mound nest elevated above ground level to prevent flooding (see Nest). However, the species has also been recorded breeding on sandy substrates, such as in Kazakhstan, and even on rocky substrates, where no nests are constructed, such as in the Banc d’Arguin (Mauritania), Lake Urmia (Iran), and Lake Elmenteita (Kenya) (76 Valverde, J. A. (1957). Aves del Sáhara Español. Estudio Ecológico del Desierto. Instituto de Estudios Africanos, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Madrid. Close , 10 Johnson, A. R., and F. Cézilly (2007). The Greater Flamingo. T. & A. D. Poyser, London, UK Close ).

The wetland size and the elevational distribution range is very wide. Mean size of breeding wetlands is 168,803 ha ± 262,290 SD, with a range 231–1,000,000 ha (n = 24), and mean elevation above sea level is 504.8 m ± 742.0 SD, with a range 0–3,200 m (n = 36) (83 Samraoui, B., A. Ouldjaoui, M. Boulkhssaïm, M. Houhamdi, M. Saheb, and A. Béchet (2006). The first recorded reproduction of the Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus roseus in Algeria: behavioural and ecological aspects. Ostrich 77:153–159. Close , 89 Serra, G., D. Murdoch, F. Turkelboom, F. Travert, Y. Mujawer, and D. A. Scott (2006). Sabkhat al-Jabbul, a threatened Ramsar wetland in Syria. Sandgrouse 28(2):127–141. Close , 10 Johnson, A. R., and F. Cézilly (2007). The Greater Flamingo. T. & A. D. Poyser, London, UK Close ).

The wetlands where Greater Flamingo breeds experience wide inter-annual variation in water regimes, which contributes to the great variations in the size of the breeding colonies (it can also result in no breeding at all; see Demography and Populations) (129 Rendón-Martos, M. (1996). La laguna de Fuente de Piedra en la dinámica de la población de flamencos (Phoenicopterus ruber roseus) del Mediterráneo occidental. PhD thesis, University of Málaga, Spain. Close , 127 McCulloch, G., and K. Irvine (2004). Breeding of Greater and Lesser Flamingos at Sua Pan, Botswana, 1998–2001. Ostrich 75(4):236–242. Close , 130 Béchet, A., and A. R. Johnson (2008). Anthropogenic and environmental determinants of Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus roseus breeding numbers and productivity in the Camargue (Rhone delta, southern France). Ibis 150:69–79. Close , 131 Máñez, M., F. Ibáñez, H. Garrido, L. García, J. L. Arroyo, J. L. Del Valle, A. Chico, and R. Rodríguez (2009). The breeding of Greater Flamingos Phoenicopterus roseus in the Guadalquivir marshes from 1989 to 2007. In Flamingo, Proceedings of the IVth International Workshop on the Greater Flamingo in the Mediterranean region and northwest Africa, Antequera, Spain, 5-6 November 2007 (A. Béchet, M. Rendón-Martos, J. A. Amat, N. Baccetti, and B. Childress, Editors), Bulletin of the IUCN-SSC/Wetlands International Flamingo Specialist Group, Special Publication 1. Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust, Slimbridge. pp. 44–47. Close ). During the breeding period (May–June), in the Camargue (France), it tends to visit rice fields with a large surface area of paddies, near to natural marshes and far from wooded and urbanized areas (132 Tourenq, C., S. Aulagnier, L. Durieux, S. Lek, F. Mesléard, A. Johnson, and J. L. Martin (2001). Identifying rice fields at risk from damage by the greater flamingo. Journal of Applied Ecology 38:170–179. Close ).

For information on feeding microhabitats during the breeding season (see Feeding: Microhabitats for Foraging).

Molting Habitat

For Greater Flamingo, molt is highly variable (see Molts), and depending on wetland conditions, it may be either sequential or simultaneous, as in Europe (11 Johnson, A., F. Cézilly, and V. Boy (1993). Plumage development and maturation in the Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber roseus. Ardea 81:25-34 Close ). The simultaneous molting of all flight feathers results in a period of about four weeks when it is unable to fly, consequently raising its exposure and vulnerability to predators. Molting areas must therefore provide both protection and food to flightless adults. Wetlands occupied when birds are molting are characterized by their large size and depth, which makes access by terrestrial predators difficult; in addition, food is readily available. Greater Flamingo has been observed molting in some large wetlands in Asia such as Lake Urmia (Iran; 133 Savage, C. (1964). Lake Rezaiyeh: a specialised summer habitat for Shelduck and Flamingos. Wildfowl Trust Annual Report 15:108-113. Close , 32 Scott, D. A. (1975). Iran. In Flamingos (J. Kear and N. Duplaix-Hall, Editors). T and A&D Poyser, Berkhamsted. pp. 28–32. Close ) and Chelkar-Tengiz Lake (Kazakhstan; 30 Spangenberg, E. P. (1951). Otryad flamingo i golenastykh. In Ptitsy Sovetskogo Soyuza. Tom 2. (G. P. Dementiev, and N. A. Gladkov, Editors), Sovetskaya Nauka, Moscow. pp. 341–475. Close ). In Africa, several hundred molting adults have been observed at the wetland complex of Oum El Bouaghi in Algeria (83 Samraoui, B., A. Ouldjaoui, M. Boulkhssaïm, M. Houhamdi, M. Saheb, and A. Béchet (2006). The first recorded reproduction of the Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus roseus in Algeria: behavioural and ecological aspects. Ostrich 77:153–159. Close ). Molting adults also use the Camargue (10 Johnson, A. R., and F. Cézilly (2007). The Greater Flamingo. T. & A. D. Poyser, London, UK Close ), and in very wet years, flightless birds use the Fuente de Piedra Lake (Spain) during the summer (AMS, MAR, JAA, MR-M, personal observation).

The habitats most frequently used during the winter are coastal wetlands, which include coastal lagoons and marshes. It has been recorded in coastal lagoons in Spain (118 Thévenot, M., R. Vernon, and P. Bergier (2003). The Birds of Morocco: An Annotated Check-list. British Ornithologists’ Union Check-list 20. British Ornithologists’ Union, Tring, UK. Close , 80 Isenmann, P., T. Gaultier, A. El Hili, H. Azafzaf, H. Dlensi, and M. Smart (2005). Oiseaux de Tunisie / Birds of Tunisia. Société d’Études Ornithologiques de France, Paris, France. (In French and English.) Close , 105 Isenmann, P., and A. Moali (2010). Oiseaux d’Algerie [Birds of Algeria]. Societé d’Études Ornithologiques de France, Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France. Close , 77 Isenmann, P., M. Benmergui, P. Browne, A. D. Ba, C. H. Diagana, Y. Diawara, and Z. El Abidine ould Sidaty (2010). Oiseaux de Mauritanie. Birds of Mauritania. Société d’Etudes Ornithologiques de France, Paris. In French and English. Close , 110 Rendón-Martos, M., and A. Garrido (2012). Flamenco común. Phoenicopterus roseus. In Atlas de las aves en invierno en España 2007-2010 (J. C. Del Moral, B. Molina, A. Bermejo, and D. Palomino, Editors), Ministerio de Agricultura, Alimentación y Medio Ambiente-SEO/BirdLife, Madrid. pp. 158–159. Close , 106 Isenmann, P., J. Hering, S. Brehme, M. Essghaier, K. Etayeb, E. Bourass, and H. Azafzaf (2016). Oiseaux de Libye [Birds of Libya]. Societé d’Etudes Ornithologiques de France, Paris, France. Close , 79 Bergier, P., M. Thévenot, and A. Qninba (2017). Oiseaux du Sahara Atlantique Marocain. Societé d'Etudes Ornithologiques de France, Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France. Close ), and uses coastal marshes elsewhere ( 87 Goodman, S. M., and P. L. Meininger, Editors (1989). The Birds of Egypt. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK and New York, USA. Close , 107 Shirihai, H. (1996). The Birds of Israel: A Complete Avifauna and Bird Atlas of Israel. Academic Press, London, UK. Close , 134 Simmons, R. E., P. E. Barnard, and I. G. Jamieson (1998). What precipitates influxes of wetland birds to ephemeral pans in arid landscapes? Observations from Namibia. Ostrich 70(2):145–148. Close , 135 McCulloch, G., A. Aebischer, and K. Irvine (2003). Satellite tracking of flamingos in southern Africa: the importance of small wetlands for management and conservation. Oryx 37(4):480–483. Close , 136 Baker, N. E., E. M. Baker, W. Van den Bossche, and H. Biebach (2006). Movements of three Greater Flamingos Phoenicopterus ruber roseus fitted with satellite transmitters in Tanzania. In Waterbirds Around the World. A Global Overview of the Conservation, Management and Research of the World's Waterbird Flyways (G. C. Boere, C. A. Galbraight, and D. A. Strout, Editors), The Stationery Office, Edinburgh, UK. pp. 239–244. Close , 137 Javed, S., S. B. Khan, R. Al Mansouri, and E. A. Al Hosani (2006). Satellite tracking of Greater Flamingos Phoenicopterus roseus from the United Arab Emirates. Tribulus 16.1:16–17. Close , 93 Kirwan, G. M., K. A. Boyla, P. Castell, B. Demirci, M. Özen, H. Welch, and T. Marlow (2008). The Birds of Turkey: the Distribution, Taxonomy and Breeding of Turkish Birds. Christopher Helm, London, UK Close , 138 Wijesundara, C. S., S. Wanniarachchi, T. Hettiarachchi, S. Galappaththi, A. Weerawardhana, and P. Rajkumar (2018). Population size and movements of the Greater Flamingo (Phoenicopterus roseus) in the Jaffna peninsula, Sri Lanka: results from a long-term study. Ceylon Journal of Science 47(4):373–378. Close ). In addition to lagoons and coastal marshes, it will also use estuaries and deltas (118 Thévenot, M., R. Vernon, and P. Bergier (2003). The Birds of Morocco: An Annotated Check-list. British Ornithologists’ Union Check-list 20. British Ornithologists’ Union, Tring, UK. Close , 93 Kirwan, G. M., K. A. Boyla, P. Castell, B. Demirci, M. Özen, H. Welch, and T. Marlow (2008). The Birds of Turkey: the Distribution, Taxonomy and Breeding of Turkish Birds. Christopher Helm, London, UK Close , 77 Isenmann, P., M. Benmergui, P. Browne, A. D. Ba, C. H. Diagana, Y. Diawara, and Z. El Abidine ould Sidaty (2010). Oiseaux de Mauritanie. Birds of Mauritania. Société d’Etudes Ornithologiques de France, Paris. In French and English. Close , 139 Ali, A., and M. S. H. Khan (2016). Winter survey of birds at Keti Bunder, district Thatha, Pakistan. Punjab University Journal of Zoology 31(2):203–208. Close , 79 Bergier, P., M. Thévenot, and A. Qninba (2017). Oiseaux du Sahara Atlantique Marocain. Societé d'Etudes Ornithologiques de France, Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France. Close ) and include intertidal mudflats along the coast (140 De Boer, W. F. (2002). The shorebird community structure at an intertidal mudflat in southern Mozambique. Ardea 90(1):81–92. Close , 77 Isenmann, P., M. Benmergui, P. Browne, A. D. Ba, C. H. Diagana, Y. Diawara, and Z. El Abidine ould Sidaty (2010). Oiseaux de Mauritanie. Birds of Mauritania. Société d’Etudes Ornithologiques de France, Paris. In French and English. Close , 141 Khaleghizadeh, A. (2010). Diurnal Behaviour of the Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus roseus during a Tidal Cycle on the Bandar Abbas Coast, Persian Gulf. Podoces 5(2):107–111. Close , 142 Ahmed, A., and H. Mahmud (2017). First record of Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus roseus from south east coastal Bangladesh. Bangladesh Journal of Zoology 45(2):185–188. Close , 138 Wijesundara, C. S., S. Wanniarachchi, T. Hettiarachchi, S. Galappaththi, A. Weerawardhana, and P. Rajkumar (2018). Population size and movements of the Greater Flamingo (Phoenicopterus roseus) in the Jaffna peninsula, Sri Lanka: results from a long-term study. Ceylon Journal of Science 47(4):373–378. Close ).

Inland marshes (87 Goodman, S. M., and P. L. Meininger, Editors (1989). The Birds of Egypt. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK and New York, USA. Close , 93 Kirwan, G. M., K. A. Boyla, P. Castell, B. Demirci, M. Özen, H. Welch, and T. Marlow (2008). The Birds of Turkey: the Distribution, Taxonomy and Breeding of Turkish Birds. Christopher Helm, London, UK Close ) and inland lakes are also used during the nonbreeding season (87 Goodman, S. M., and P. L. Meininger, Editors (1989). The Birds of Egypt. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK and New York, USA. Close , 107 Shirihai, H. (1996). The Birds of Israel: A Complete Avifauna and Bird Atlas of Israel. Academic Press, London, UK. Close , 118 Thévenot, M., R. Vernon, and P. Bergier (2003). The Birds of Morocco: An Annotated Check-list. British Ornithologists’ Union Check-list 20. British Ornithologists’ Union, Tring, UK. Close , 93 Kirwan, G. M., K. A. Boyla, P. Castell, B. Demirci, M. Özen, H. Welch, and T. Marlow (2008). The Birds of Turkey: the Distribution, Taxonomy and Breeding of Turkish Birds. Christopher Helm, London, UK Close , 105 Isenmann, P., and A. Moali (2010). Oiseaux d’Algerie [Birds of Algeria]. Societé d’Études Ornithologiques de France, Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France. Close , 106 Isenmann, P., J. Hering, S. Brehme, M. Essghaier, K. Etayeb, E. Bourass, and H. Azafzaf (2016). Oiseaux de Libye [Birds of Libya]. Societé d’Etudes Ornithologiques de France, Paris, France. Close , 79 Bergier, P., M. Thévenot, and A. Qninba (2017). Oiseaux du Sahara Atlantique Marocain. Societé d'Etudes Ornithologiques de France, Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France. Close ). In the Rift Valley lakes of Ethiopia, Kenya, and Tanzania, Greater Flamingo occurs year-round (136 Baker, N. E., E. M. Baker, W. Van den Bossche, and H. Biebach (2006). Movements of three Greater Flamingos Phoenicopterus ruber roseus fitted with satellite transmitters in Tanzania. In Waterbirds Around the World. A Global Overview of the Conservation, Management and Research of the World's Waterbird Flyways (G. C. Boere, C. A. Galbraight, and D. A. Strout, Editors), The Stationery Office, Edinburgh, UK. pp. 239–244. Close , 143 Kumssa, T., and A. Bekele (2014). Current Population Status and Activity Pattern of Lesser Flamingos (Phoeniconaias minor) and Greater Flamingo (Phoenicopterus roseus) in Abijata-Shalla Lakes National Park (ASLNP), Ethiopia. International Journal of Biodiversity 2014:295362 Close ). It was observed at Antsamaka Lake, a saline wetland in western Madagascar (144 Razafimanjato, G., T. S. Sam, and R. Thorstrom (2007). Waterbird Monitoring in the Antsalova Region, Western Madagascar. Waterbirds 30(3):441–447. Close ). Other inland lakes utilized during the nonbreeding season included an unnamed small lake in South Africa (135 McCulloch, G., A. Aebischer, and K. Irvine (2003). Satellite tracking of flamingos in southern Africa: the importance of small wetlands for management and conservation. Oryx 37(4):480–483. Close ) and Lake Bakhtegan, Iran (137 Javed, S., S. B. Khan, R. Al Mansouri, and E. A. Al Hosani (2006). Satellite tracking of Greater Flamingos Phoenicopterus roseus from the United Arab Emirates. Tribulus 16.1:16–17. Close ). Salt flats located in arid or desert areas are another type of habitat used in during the nonbreeding season (118 Thévenot, M., R. Vernon, and P. Bergier (2003). The Birds of Morocco: An Annotated Check-list. British Ornithologists’ Union Check-list 20. British Ornithologists’ Union, Tring, UK. Close , 80 Isenmann, P., T. Gaultier, A. El Hili, H. Azafzaf, H. Dlensi, and M. Smart (2005). Oiseaux de Tunisie / Birds of Tunisia. Société d’Études Ornithologiques de France, Paris, France. (In French and English.) Close , 137 Javed, S., S. B. Khan, R. Al Mansouri, and E. A. Al Hosani (2006). Satellite tracking of Greater Flamingos Phoenicopterus roseus from the United Arab Emirates. Tribulus 16.1:16–17. Close , 105 Isenmann, P., and A. Moali (2010). Oiseaux d’Algerie [Birds of Algeria]. Societé d’Études Ornithologiques de France, Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France. Close ).

In additional to natural habitats, Greater Flamingo also uses man-made habitats during the nonbreeding season. It has been observed in saltworks in India (128 Parasharya, B. M., and I. R. Gadhvi (2020). First report of successful breeding of Greater Flamingo in the Gulf of Khambhat, India-outside its traditional nesting range. Indian Birds 15(5):136–139. Close ) and Spain (110 Rendón-Martos, M., and A. Garrido (2012). Flamenco común. Phoenicopterus roseus. In Atlas de las aves en invierno en España 2007-2010 (J. C. Del Moral, B. Molina, A. Bermejo, and D. Palomino, Editors), Ministerio de Agricultura, Alimentación y Medio Ambiente-SEO/BirdLife, Madrid. pp. 158–159. Close ), in rice paddies in France and Uganda (132 Tourenq, C., S. Aulagnier, L. Durieux, S. Lek, F. Mesléard, A. Johnson, and J. L. Martin (2001). Identifying rice fields at risk from damage by the greater flamingo. Journal of Applied Ecology 38:170–179. Close , 145 Tourenq, C., R. E. Bennetts, H. Kowalski, E. Vailet, J. L. Lucchesi, Y. Kayser, and P. Isenmann (2001). Are rice-fields a good alternative to natural marshes for waterbird communities in the Camargue, southern France? Biological Conservation 100:335–343. Close , 146 Kasozi, S. N. (2011). The Greater Flamingo Pheonicopterus roseus and other birds at the Kibimba rice scheme, eastern Uganda. Scopus 31:41–42. Close ), and in harvested rice fields in recent years in Spain (147 Rendón, M. A., A. J. Green, E. Aguilera, and P. Almaraz (2008). Status, distribution and long-term changes in the waterbird community wintering in Doñana, south-west Spain. Biological Conservation 141:1371–1388. Close ). Also in Spain, it has been observed in winter in aquaculture ponds (147 Rendón, M. A., A. J. Green, E. Aguilera, and P. Almaraz (2008). Status, distribution and long-term changes in the waterbird community wintering in Doñana, south-west Spain. Biological Conservation 141:1371–1388. Close , 110 Rendón-Martos, M., and A. Garrido (2012). Flamenco común. Phoenicopterus roseus. In Atlas de las aves en invierno en España 2007-2010 (J. C. Del Moral, B. Molina, A. Bermejo, and D. Palomino, Editors), Ministerio de Agricultura, Alimentación y Medio Ambiente-SEO/BirdLife, Madrid. pp. 158–159. Close ). It has been observed in reservoirs in Morocco (118 Thévenot, M., R. Vernon, and P. Bergier (2003). The Birds of Morocco: An Annotated Check-list. British Ornithologists’ Union Check-list 20. British Ornithologists’ Union, Tring, UK. Close ) and in India (148 Kumar, A., S., S. Kushwaha, and A. Namdev (2019). Record of Greater Flamingos (Phoenicopterus roseus) in Reservoirs of Lalitpur, Uttar Pradesh, India. Journal of Wildlife Research 7(1):11–15. Close ).

There are few studies on habitat selection. Wintering birds in semi-arid and desert wetlands of Algeria (n = 35) were more abundant in those wetlands that had a larger area, a shallower depth, and more saline water content (149 Bensaci, E., M. Saheb, Y. Nouidjem, A. Zoubiri, A. Bouzegag, and M. Houhamdi (2015). Status, Habitat Use, and Behaviour of Wintering Greater Flamingos Phoenicopterus roseus in Semi-Arid and Saharan Wetlands of Algeria. International Journal of Biological, Biomolecular, Agricultural, Food and Biotechnological Engineering 9(3):350–355. Close ). In Abijata-Shalla Lakes National Park (Ethiopia), it selected offshore areas of the lakes (143 Kumssa, T., and A. Bekele (2014). Current Population Status and Activity Pattern of Lesser Flamingos (Phoeniconaias minor) and Greater Flamingo (Phoenicopterus roseus) in Abijata-Shalla Lakes National Park (ASLNP), Ethiopia. International Journal of Biodiversity 2014:295362 Close ). In the Gulf of Gabès (Tunisia), the abundance of Greater Flamingo increased in areas with large mudflats intersected by tidal channels, covered by sea-grass, and sediments rich in organic materials (150 Hamza, F., A. Hammouda, M. A. Chokri, A. Bechet, and S. Selmi (2014). Distribution et abondance du flamant rose Phoenicopterus roseus hivernant dans la zone centrale du golfe de Gabès, Tunisie. Alauda 82:135−142. Close ). In Venice Lagoon (Italy), wintering birds selected open landscapes, silty water areas 10 to 60 cm deep, areas with a low occurrence of salt marshes in a radius of 500 m, and a cover of seagrasses <4% (151 Scarton, F. (2017). Environmental characteristics of shallow bottoms used by Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus roseus in a northern Adriatic lagoon. Acrocephalus 38(174/175):161–169. Close ).

There seems to be age-related segregation in wetland use between juveniles and adults, suggesting that juveniles avoid sharing habitat with adults, with the result of juveniles being displaced to low-quality wetlands, as judged by their lower abdominal profiles (20 Amat, J. A., and M. A. Rendón (2017). Flamingo coloration and its significance. In Flamingos: Behavior, Biology, and Relationship with Humans (M. Anderson, Editor), Nova Science Publishers, New York, NY. pp. 75–95. Close ).