Demography and Populations

Age At First Breeding

Unknown.

Clutch

Kaua'i 'Ö'ö. No information, but 1 nest contained 2 young (J. L. Sincock unpubl.), so clutch size in this case was at least 2 eggs, possibly more.

Annual And Lifetime Reproductive Success

Unknown.

Number Of Broods Normally Reared Per Season

Possibly more than 1.

Kaua'i 'Ö'ö. No information; however, the last surviving individual, believed to be a male, was at least 4 yr old.

Diseases

In 1826, Mexican night-biting mosquito (Culex quinquefasciatus) was introduced to Maui and quickly spread to other islands (Warner 1968a Warner, R. E. (1968a). The role of introduced diseases in the extinction of the endemic Hawaiian avifauna. Condor 70:101-120. Close ). Beginning in 1865, alien birds from all over the world were introduced to the islands (Scott et al. 1986 Scott, J. M., S. Mountainspring, F. L. Ramsaey and C. B. Kepler. (1986). Forest bird communities of the Hawaiian Islands: their dynamics, ecology, and conservation. Studies in Avian Biology 9. Close ). Since then a long list of avian pathogens and parasites has been catalogued in Hawai'i (van Riper and van Riper 1985 van Riper, S. G., and C. van Riper III (1985). A summary of known parasites and diseases recorded from the avifauna of the Hawaiian Islands. In Hawaii's Terrestrial Ecosystems: Preservation and Management (C. P. Stone and J. M. Scott, Editors), Cooperative National Park Resources Studies Unit, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI, USA. pp. 298–371. Close ). Chief among them in terms of virulence to native avifauna (Warner 1968a Warner, R. E. (1968a). The role of introduced diseases in the extinction of the endemic Hawaiian avifauna. Condor 70:101-120. Close , van Riper and van Riper 1985 van Riper, S. G., and C. van Riper III (1985). A summary of known parasites and diseases recorded from the avifauna of the Hawaiian Islands. In Hawaii's Terrestrial Ecosystems: Preservation and Management (C. P. Stone and J. M. Scott, Editors), Cooperative National Park Resources Studies Unit, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI, USA. pp. 298–371. Close , Van Riper et al. 1986 Van Riper, C., III, S. G. Van Riper, M. L. Goff and M. Laird. (1986). The epizootiology and ecological significance of malaria in Hawaiian land birds. Ecological Monographs 56:327-344. Close , Atkinson et al. 1995 Atkinson, C., K. L. Woods, R. J. Dusek, L. S. Sileo and W. M. Iko. (1995). Wildlife disease and conservation in Hawai'i: pathogenicity of avian malaria (plasmodium relictum) in experimentally infected 'I'iwi (Vestiaria coccinea). Parasitology 111:S59-S69. Close ), which had evolved in absence of significant diseases, are avian malaria (Plasmodium relictum) and avian pox (Poxvirus avium). Both diseases are spread by C. quinquefasciatus, although pox can also spread by contact. Perkins (Perkins 1893b Perkins, R. C. L. (1893b). Notes on collecting in Kona, Hawaii. Ibis ser. 6 5 (1):101-112. Close ) first noted poxlike lesions on Hawaiian birds in early 1890s. Since then, pox has been described in >20 species of birds in Hawai'i (Scott et al. 1986 Scott, J. M., S. Mountainspring, F. L. Ramsaey and C. B. Kepler. (1986). Forest bird communities of the Hawaiian Islands: their dynamics, ecology, and conservation. Studies in Avian Biology 9. Close ). Avian malaria is particularly virulent to Hawaiian birds. By the time malaria arrived, C. qinquefasciatus had invaded all islands up to 1,650 m elevation (Goff and Van Riper III 1980 Goff, M. L. and C. Van Riper III. (1980). Distribution of mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) on the east flank of Mauna Loa Volcano, Hawai'i. Pac. Insects 22:178-188. Close , Van Riper et al. 1986 Van Riper, C., III, S. G. Van Riper, M. L. Goff and M. Laird. (1986). The epizootiology and ecological significance of malaria in Hawaiian land birds. Ecological Monographs 56:327-344. Close ), although in decreasing density at higher elevations. Unfortunately, birds at higher (safe) elevations fly down-slope during inclement weather or periods of local food abundance, at which time exposure to malaria is increased.

Kaua'i 'Ö'ö. Female collected on 23 May 1891 by Henry C. Palmer (ROM 59936) had poxlike lesions on 1 toe (Glenn Murphy pers. comm.). Avian malaria and pox, separately and in combination, probably were partly responsible for extinction of Kaua'i 'Ö'ö.

Hawai'i 'Ö'ö. Avian malaria and pox may have been partly responsible for disappearance of this species.

Body Parasites

No information.

No information.

Kaua'i 'Ö'ö. Fidelity to nesting territory strong during breeding and from year to year.

Kaua'i 'Ö'ö. In twentieth century, known only from Alaka'i Swamp of central Kaua'i I. No estimates exist for population before 1960s. For 1968-1973, Sincock et al. (Sincock et al. 1984 Sincock, J. L., R. E. Daehler, T. Telfer and D. H. Woodside. (1984). Kauai forest bird recovery plan. Portland, OR: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Close ) estimated population at 36 birds ± 22 SE (95% confidence interval [CI]), and by 1981 (Scott et al. 1986 Scott, J. M., S. Mountainspring, F. L. Ramsaey and C. B. Kepler. (1986). Forest bird communities of the Hawaiian Islands: their dynamics, ecology, and conservation. Studies in Avian Biology 9. Close ), estimated population had decreased to 2 birds ± 2 SE (95% CI; estimated effective detection distance of 150 m). Now probably extinct; last seen in 1985 (Pyle 1985a Pyle, R. L. (1985a). Hawaiian Islands region. American Birds 39:107. Close ), and last heard calling, but not seen, in 1987 (Pyle 1987 Pyle, R. L. (1987). Hawaiian Islands region. American Birds 41:491-493. Close ). No reliable reports since.

O'ahu 'Ö'ö. Population was large (probably in thousands) sometime before Western contact (1778), since substantial numbers of O'ahu 'Ö'ö were taken for Hawaiian feather work (Kaeppler 1970 Kaeppler, A. L. (1970). Feather cloaks, ship captains, and lords. Occas. Pap. Bernice P. Bishop Mus. 24:92-114. Close ). Although large numbers were taken, few were obtained for science. Last reports were in 1837 (Rothschild 1907 Rothschild, W. (1907). Extinct Birds. Hutchinson and Co., London, UK. Close , Greenway 1958 Greenway, Jr., J. C. (1958). Extinct and vanishing birds of the world. New York: American Committee for International Wild Life Protection. Spec. Publ. 13. Close ) or, if correct, 7 Sep 1840 (AMNH 306357), all collected by Ferdinand Deppe, probably in Nu'uanu Valley, O'ahu I.

Bishop's 'Ö'ö. No information on numbers, but still widespread in late 1800s.

Hawai'i 'Ö'ö. No estimates of population exist; given the number required to make feather artifacts by Hawaiians (Brigham 1899 Brigham, W. T. (1899). Hawaiian feather work. Mem. Bishop Mus. 1:1-81. Close , Kaeppler 1970 Kaeppler, A. L. (1970). Feather cloaks, ship captains, and lords. Occas. Pap. Bernice P. Bishop Mus. 24:92-114. Close , Rose et al. 1993 Rose, R. G., S. Conant and E. P. Kjellgren. (1993). Hawaiian standing kähili in the Bishop Museum: an ethnological and biological analysis. The Journal of the Polynesian Society 102:273-304. Close ), however, and on the basis of writings of early naturalists and ornithologists (Peale 1848 Peale, T. R. (1848). Mammalia and ornithology: U.S. Exploring Expedition, 1838-1842. Vol. 8. Philadelphia, PA: Sherman. Close , Wilson 1890a Wilson, S. (1890a). On some of the birds of the Sandwich Islands. Ibis 2:170-196. Close , Henshaw 1902a Henshaw, H. W. (1902a). Birds of the Hawaiian Islands being a complete list of the birds of the Hawaiian possessions with notes on their habits. Honolulu, HI: Thomas G. Thrum. Close , Perkins 1903 Perkins, R. C. L. (1903). Fauna Hawaiiensis, Volume I, Part IV: Vertebrata (D. Sharp, Editor). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom. Close ), population probably totaled many thousands.

Kioea. No information on numbers; considered rare when discovered in 1840 (Peale 1848 Peale, T. R. (1848). Mammalia and ornithology: U.S. Exploring Expedition, 1838-1842. Vol. 8. Philadelphia, PA: Sherman. Close ) and extinct shortly after 1859 (Munro 1944a Munro, G. C. (1944a). Birds of Hawai'i. Honolulu: Tong Publ. Co. Close ).

Kaua'i 'Ö'ö. Since end of nineteenth century, habitat loss and modification, avian disease, and introduction of rodents have all severely affected populations, resulting in extinction in <90 yr.

O'ahu 'Ö'ö. No information; habitat loss and modification, and overexploitation, likely were the causes of extinction.

Hawai'i 'Ö'ö. Habitat loss and modification, avian diseases, introduced rodents, and heavy hunting pressure for feathers and meat devastated populations.