Conservation and Management

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) listed the Red-crowned Parrot as Threatened in 1988, and it has been ranked as Endangered since 1994. The justification is listed as the “combination of high levels of exploitation for the cagebird trade, long-term habitat loss and reduced density estimates” (90 BirdLife International (2023). Species factsheet: Amazona viridigenalis. Close ).

In Mexico, commercial exportation of parrots became illegal in 1982, and in 1983, wild harvest of parrots was outlawed; in 2008, the Mexican government permanently banned trapping, export, and import of all parrots native to the country under the Mexico General Law of Wildlife Article 60 2. Red-crowned Parrots are considered Endangered by the Mexican government under NOM-059 (97 Domínguez-Sánchez, Santiago (2020). List of species of Mexico at risk and protected by the NOM-059. In dataMares: Ecosystem Dynamics. UC San Diego Library Digital Collections. https://doi.org/10.6075/J0CN72FQ Close ).

In 2008, the Red-crowned Parrot was petitioned for listing under the Endangered Species Act (ESA) and scientific information at the time suggested that listing may be warranted; thus, the species was then considered an ESA candidate species. In 2019, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) found that listing the Red-crowned Parrot on the Endangered Species Act was not warranted, and the species was removed from the candidate species list (98 United States Department of the Interior, 2019. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; 12-Month Findings on Petitions To List Eight Species as Endangered or Threatened Species. Fed. Reg. Vol. 84. No. 65., p. 13273 Close ). The USFWS decision was based on evidence that showed the decline of logging in Mexico over the previous three decades and the establishment of populations in ranch land and urban habitats in Mexico and southern Texas over the same time frame (98 United States Department of the Interior, 2019. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; 12-Month Findings on Petitions To List Eight Species as Endangered or Threatened Species. Fed. Reg. Vol. 84. No. 65., p. 13273 Close ). However, under alternative interpretations, the species could be considered as “Vulnerable” under the ESA (DJB).

As of March 2020, the Red-crowned Parrot is listed as a Threatened Species in the state of Texas, affording it legal protections against capture, poaching, or take of any kind. Additional local ordinances protecting the species are common within its range in Texas (43 Kiacz, S., C. E. Shackelford, A. K. Henehan, and D. J. Brightsmith (2021). History, status, and productivity of the Red-crowned Amazon Amazona viridigenalis in the Lower Rio Grande Valley of Texas. Bird Conservation International 31:519–533. Close ).

Habitat Loss and Degradation

Habitat modification and fragmentation negatively affect some parrot species, but the Red-crowned Parrot does not appear to be sensitive to clearing or urbanization if nesting and foraging resources are still available. In fact, within naturalized populations, Red-crowned Parrot populations are generally healthy or increasing and are entirely dependent on urbanized regions (29 Kiacz, Simon, Hsiao-Hsuan Wang, and Donald J. Brightsmith. "Presence of Endangered Red-Crowned Parrots (Amazona viridigenalis) Depends on Urban Landscapes." Diversity 15.7 (2023): 878. Close ).

Effects of Invasive Species

Information needed. Red-crowned Parrots do forage on and nest in non-native flora throughout their range and are largely dependent on non-natives throughout much of their naturalized range as well as south Texas (29 Kiacz, Simon, Hsiao-Hsuan Wang, and Donald J. Brightsmith. "Presence of Endangered Red-Crowned Parrots (Amazona viridigenalis) Depends on Urban Landscapes." Diversity 15.7 (2023): 878. Close ).

Shooting and Trapping

Between 1970 and 1982, there were 16,490 individuals, largely nestlings, Red-crowned Parrot were legally exported from Mexico to the United States; the same number is estimated to have been taken out of Mexico illegally, and pre-export mortality is estimated at > 50% (46 Cantu, J., M. E. S. Saldana, M. Grosselet, and J. S. Gamez (2007). The illegal parrot trade in Mexico: a comprehensive assessment. Defenders of Wildlife, Washington, DC, USA. Close , 41 Iñigo-Elias, E. E., and M. A. Ramos (1991). The psittacine trade in Mexico. In Neotropical Wildlife Use and Conservation (J. G. Robinson and K. H. Redford, Editors). University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, USA. pp. 380–392. Close ). Approximate minimum level of harvest for the 12-year period 1970‒1982 would therefore be ~5,000/yr, on the basis of combined legal and illegal trade and expected mortality. This coincides with the large decline in the species population throughout their native range, as well as introductions and establishment of naturalized populations in the United States. Poaching in Mexico is an ongoing threat, where medium to high levels of poaching are still disturbing parrot populations in easy to access regions, such as urban areas or unprotected ranches, although poaching pressure is decreasing compared to previous years (89 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (2019). Species status assessment report for red-crowned parrot (Amazona viridigenalis), Version 3.0. Albuquerque, NM, USA. Close ).

Poaching can also have indirect effects on populations by decreasing nest-site availability because poachers often enlarge cavity entrances and cut through the trunk of the nesting tree to extract chicks from the nest cavity, making the cavity unsuitable for future use (46 Cantu, J., M. E. S. Saldana, M. Grosselet, and J. S. Gamez (2007). The illegal parrot trade in Mexico: a comprehensive assessment. Defenders of Wildlife, Washington, DC, USA. Close , 43 Kiacz, S., C. E. Shackelford, A. K. Henehan, and D. J. Brightsmith (2021). History, status, and productivity of the Red-crowned Amazon Amazona viridigenalis in the Lower Rio Grande Valley of Texas. Bird Conservation International 31:519–533. Close , 99 Pires, S., Clarke, R.V., 2012. Are parrots CRAVED? An analysis of parrot poaching in Mexico. Journal of research in crime and delinquency 49, 122-146. Close ). This was seen often in Texas; areas that were easily accessed by people often had nest cavities clearly damaged by poachers (e.g., roadsides or commercial/public properties [SK]). Loss of nest sites could significantly hamper population growth if an adequate supply of cavities is not otherwise available, especially since nesting resources for the species generally take many years (decades) to mature. Unfortunately, for populations in urban regions, the loss of nesting resources due to poaching can be exacerbated by the removal of dead or dying trees by land owners and the clearing of wooded lots for future development. Conversely, studies done in the 1990s in northeastern Mexico did not list cavity loss as a major threat, as suitable cavities were thought to be abundant for the current level of occupancy (15 Enkerlin-Hoeflich, E. C. (1995). Comparative ecology and reproductive biology of three species of Amazona parrots in northeastern Mexico. Ph.D. dissertation, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA. Close ).

In Hawaii, there have been reports of farmers shooting Red-crowned Parrots over the last decade (2010s) due to actual and perceived threats to agriculture, including on rambutan and corn crops (14 Kalodimos, N. P. (2013). The status and comparative nesting phenology of the red-crowned amazon on O’ahu, Hawai’i. ‘Elepaio 73:1–3. Close ).

Pesticides and Other Contaminants/Toxics

Information needed.

Collisions with Stationary/Moving Structures or Objects

Window collisions in southern California have caused fatalities. Observations of collisions with automobiles have been observed, although no deaths as a result have been confirmed (SK).

Other Human Impacts

Disturbance at Nest and Roost Sites

There seems to be little effect of disturbance at nesting sites (besides poaching) on overall population numbers. The species is generally tolerant of human activity as evidenced by their choice of nesting and roosting sites directly near highways and homes, at least in urban populations (SK, 100 Mabb, K.T., 2003. Naturalized Parrot Roost Flock Characteristics and Habitat Utilization in a Suburban Area of Los Angeles County, California. M.S. Thesis. California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, California. Close ). Although the species seems aware of any interest taken in them by people and can be wary around nest cavities, especially if young are present, the birds will generally ignore people so long as they themselves are ignored.

Fireworks during holidays have been shown to displace roosts temporarily, and occasional loud noises or feral cats can cause disruptions at roosts as well, but the species seems to have high site fidelity at roosts (43 Kiacz, S., C. E. Shackelford, A. K. Henehan, and D. J. Brightsmith (2021). History, status, and productivity of the Red-crowned Amazon Amazona viridigenalis in the Lower Rio Grande Valley of Texas. Bird Conservation International 31:519–533. Close ).

Electrocution

In urban areas in southern Texas, electrocution has been witnessed as a cause of mortality as birds can cause shorts between power lines (SK).

Conservation practices that may be beneficial include small and large-scale protection of habitat, providing artificial nest boxes, elimination of poaching, and reducing the proclivity of the species in the pet trade, education of the public on the species, protections of naturalized populations, and more intensive practices such as nest guarding, breed and release programs, and translocations.

Site-specific or species-specific approaches to habitat conservation have proven beneficial. In northeastern Mexico, ranches hosting large numbers of Amazona parrots have largely remained intact over the previous three decades, and forest regeneration is occurring in many areas. Within these sites, parrot densities have either stabilized or increased (e.g., 51 Brightsmith, D. J., and E. Enkerlin-Hoeflich (2015). Amazon Parrots in Tamaulipas, Mexico: Back to the Ranch 20 Years Later. AFA Watchbird 42:46–52. Close ), showing that responsible ownership of large tracts of land can benefit the overall populations of imperiled species. The protection of small tracts of land, such as residential plots, has also proven important. In Texas, dead Washingtonia palms are a nesting favorite, but landowners often remove dead or decaying trees from their properties. Once aware of parrots nesting in their trees, most property owners will leave the trees standing, which provides a semi-protected parrot nesting site for years to come (SK). Additionally, in urban areas, many property owners provide food (generally peanuts) for the birds, and all fledgling nursery sites in Texas have been found within 100 m of these properties (SK). Although total protection of large tracts of habitat is a safe and proven strategy, it is frequently not feasible; however, the previous examples have shown that promotion of conservation in commercial and residential properties is worthwhile and perhaps needed. These tactics can be expanded over larger areas to achieve a landscape-level or regional approach to conservation. Parrots are charismatic, and Amazona species in particular seem to have generalist ecological attributes that allow them to act as a link balancing conservation and development.

The Red-crowned Parrot uses cavities with a wide range of characteristics, in a variety of tree species. Wide acceptance of different cavity characteristics and vegetation assemblages suggests that conservation of many Amazona parrots, including the Red-crowned Parrot, could be successful in mosaics of disturbed vegetation if replacement of nesting tree species such as ebony, coma, and Washingtonia spp. is allowed and promoted (15 Enkerlin-Hoeflich, E. C. (1995). Comparative ecology and reproductive biology of three species of Amazona parrots in northeastern Mexico. Ph.D. dissertation, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA. Close , 43 Kiacz, S., C. E. Shackelford, A. K. Henehan, and D. J. Brightsmith (2021). History, status, and productivity of the Red-crowned Amazon Amazona viridigenalis in the Lower Rio Grande Valley of Texas. Bird Conservation International 31:519–533. Close ). Similarly, the use of artificial nest boxes could help increase the number of suitable nesting sites in a region. Nest boxes can also be placed specifically in protected areas which could reduce the effects of poaching. Artificial nests have been used successfully in southern Texas, and a large-scale nest box project was started in 2016 in Brownsville, Texas.

Naturalized populations of the Red-crowned Parrot in the United States and throughout Mexico could serve as important reservoirs for the species. These naturalized populations contain important genetic diversity and hold thousands of free-living individuals which can help alleviate the expediency needed from conservation actions within the species native range (101 Kiacz, S., and D. J. Brightsmith (2021). Naturalized Parrots: Conservation and Research Opportunities. In Naturalized Parrots of the World: Distribution, Ecology, and Impacts of the World's Most Colorful Colonizers (S. Pruett-Jones, Editor). Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, USA. Close ).

If this species declines drastically, however, it may be advisable to begin intensive efforts to increase reproductive output and/or to reduce mortality. One option in this case would be to implement nest-guarding, as is done with some imperiled species (102 Lindsey, G. D. (1992). Nest guarding from observation blinds: strategy for improving Puerto Rican Parrot nest success. Journal of Field Ornithology 63:466-472. Close , 82 Sanz, V. and Rodríguez-Ferraro, A (2006). Reproductive parameters and productivity of the Yellow-shouldered Parrot on Margarita Island, Venezuela: a long-term study. Condor. 108:178–192. Close ). Nest guarding has been shown to increase reproductive output, but is costly and time consuming. Reintroduction is another extreme option and has been utilized for other parrot species. Recent discussion has focused on the possibility of relocating birds from naturalized populations to enhance wild populations. Given the threats inherent in such efforts (101 Kiacz, S., and D. J. Brightsmith (2021). Naturalized Parrots: Conservation and Research Opportunities. In Naturalized Parrots of the World: Distribution, Ecology, and Impacts of the World's Most Colorful Colonizers (S. Pruett-Jones, Editor). Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, USA. Close ) and the current status of the Red-crowned Parrot, we believe that such measures will not be needed or warranted. Likewise, ex-situ breeding programs are generally a last-ditch effort for some of the worlds most endangered species and are extremely time-consuming and costly, but have shown promise for some parrot species.