SPECIES

Short-clawed Lark Certhilauda chuana Scientific name definitions

G. Derek Engelbrecht
Version: 2.0 — Published February 23, 2023

Behavior

Introduction

Short-clawed Lark is usually seen alone or in pairs. It is a mainly terrestrial species, but males, especially, frequently perch on elevated objects like termite mounds, rocks, or low bushes from where they deliver their songs and calls. Males perform a characteristic and awe-inspiring aerial display throughout the year, with a peak in spring and summer. The pair bond usually lasts a single breeding season, with females dispersing during winter.

Locomotion

Walking, Running, Hopping, Climbing, etc.

Adults walk or run in short stints while foraging, but sometimes hop over small obstacles such as debris. The shape and manner of walking resemble a pipit (Motacillidae), but Short-clawed Lark does not pump its tail. It typically walks in short forays, frequently stopping to scan the ground and vegetation for prey or scouting for potential predators before continuing . When digging for prey at the base of vegetation, it frequently assumes a crouching position. It may run a short distance to pursue prey, sometimes spreading both wings, possibly to block prey from escaping. Occasionally, individuals may jump to glean invertebrates from vegetation (DE, unpublished data). Birds frequently perch on termite mounds, rocks, low vegetation, fences, fence posts, and occasionally on overhead powerlines. The first response, when threatened, is to stand erect and assess the threat; if the level of threat increases, it will either crouch to avoid detection or attempt to escape by running away in a crouched, rodent-like manner. Fledglings hop for at least 10 d after leaving the nest.

Flight

Flight is fast and direct, and landing does not involve the hover-and-drop type landing of Mirafra larks. When taking flight in response to a threat, the flight distance is usually short (typically less than 30 m), but if the threat persists, the individual will fly a considerable distance (more than 100 m) before landing.

Like other Certhilauda larks, Short-clawed Lark has a characteristic display flight that follows a steep parabolic trajectory. A typical display flight starts with a low (~1 m above the ground) level-flight phase of 10–60 m, followed by a steep, 6–10 m ascent (occasionally as high as 20 m), and steep 'nose-dive' descent (49, 50, 46). The wings are held closed during the parabolic phase, but the tail is fanned open during the descent. During the display, the males give the drawn-out display flight song during the last part of the ascent and the descent (see Vocalizations). The distance between the start and end of the parabolic phase is usually around 30–35 m, sometimes more, depending on the wind (46).

It has been suggested that there is an association between the average height of the apex of display flights and the average height of trees in a territory (50). In open areas with good visibility, males ascend 5–10 m, while in denser Vachellia bush, display flight apexes may reach 20 m. However, on the Polokwane Plateau, display flight apexes consistently fall within the 6–10 m range (46); this may relate to this population's habitat preference, as Short-clawed Lark on the Polokwane Plateau avoids dense, bush-encroached areas where both tree height and canopy diameters exceed 2 m (41).

Display flights may be repeated several times before a bird lands, with as many as four displays recorded in a single flight (49, 50, 46). There appear to be regional differences in the number of display flights performed during a single aerial display. On the Polokwane Plateau, single display flights dominate (95.6%), with double (4.2%) and triple (0.2%) display flights only performed rarely (46). Double and triple display flights are more common in the western population (49, 50, 46). The tendency for multiple display flights in a single aerial display may be related to the habitat structure in a territory (43). To perform their spectacular display flights, territories need to meet two requirements: first, a relatively large, open area free of obstacles such as large trees for the level-flight phase of the display flight, and second, the trees must be short, preferably less than 2 m, to maximize the visual impact of the parabolic phase of the display (41, 43). It follows from this that changes in the habitat structure, e.g., an increase in tree size and density, will curtail a male's ability to perform display flights (43).

Display fights are performed throughout the year, but the number of display flights performed by a male per day is greatest in December (mean of 58.5 display flights per day ± 9.97 SD, range 41–68) and is the least during the non-breeding season (mean of 1.83 display flights per day ± 1.83 SD, range 0–4) (46). As with vocalizations, daily temporal variation in the frequency of display flights exists; most display flights are performed within the first three hours after sunrise, but during the peak breeding season, displays are performed throughout the day, albeit with a morning peak (46).

Short-clawed Lark also has a low, fluttering courtship flight. This is often observed when a male accompanies a female during nest construction, and if a male hovers above a female on the ground (50; DE, unpublished data). A description of the display flight by Dean and Keith (14) of " ... displays in fluttering flight with wings clapping; straight and on the same plane, low down over dense 1 m tall grass" may refer to the fluttering courtship flight, although 1 m tall grass does not fit the habitat preference of the species.

Self-Maintenance

Preening, Head-Scratching, Stretching, Sunbathing, Bathing, Anting, etc.

Typical maintenance behaviors include preening, body-shaking, fluffing contour feathers, bill- and head-wiping, wing-stretching, and head-scratching (DE, unpublished data). Although self-maintenance activities occur mainly in the morning, shorter bouts occur regularly during the day and are interspersed with other activities. Preening usually lasts 10–15 min and, in males, is often interrupted by short bouts of territorial singing. After copulation, aggressive encounters, and feeding, both sexes will also raise their contour feathers followed by vigorous body-shaking and occasionally wing- or leg-stretching. Head-scratching is performed by bringing one foot forward over a drooped wing. Fluffing of the contour feathers occurs especially in the early mornings or in cool or cold conditions. Head- and bill-wiping usually occurs after feeding or after prey delivery to nestlings. Short-clawed Lark regularly dust-bathes on the ground by rubbing the chest, head, and neck region in loose soil, and shuffling its wings to flick soil particles onto ruffled dorsal contour feathers. Following dust-bathing, body-shaking again takes place with the feathers still fluffed. Although no bathing has been recorded, individuals are occasionally seen with soaked ventral contour feathers, preening themselves in exposed areas. Whether the soaking occurs incidentally or is achieved deliberately while walking through wet vegetation, e.g., dew, is unknown, but may represent an alternative form of bathing. No allopreening has been recorded.

Sleeping, Roosting

Information needed.

Daily Time Budget

Not well studied, but vocalizations and the frequency of aerial display flights are greatest within the first three hours after sunrise and are interspersed with regular short foraging bouts (46). This period of territorial behavior is followed by 60–90 min of less territorial activity during which birds mainly engage in foraging and self-maintenance activities. During the breeding season, there may be another brief period of less intense vocalizations and displays in the late morning. This is generally followed by alternating bouts of foraging and seeking shade or shelter and self-maintenance activities. There is usually a slight increase in vocalizations and displays in the late afternoon during the peak breeding season, but it never reaches the intensity of the early morning territorial activity peak (46).

Agonistic Behavior

Physical Interactions

Physical contact is rare but is usually preceded by posturing. Two rivals will either face each other in a crouched position (typically less than 1 m apart), or the apparently dominant bird will stand erect with its crest raised, flicking its wings; in contrast, the rival will crouch in a submissive posture. This stand-off may be followed by a direct attack, e.g., jumping against each other and pecking, or one of them will fly off and the other will chase it (5).

Territorial Behavior

Most apparent territorial disputes are characterized by communicative interactions from a prominent perch or on the ground. These include mainly territorial songs, agitated contact calls, and aerial displays. Other agonistic behavior involves non-contact activities such as chasing or fluttering above the other, often accompanied by the agitated contact call (5). On one occasion, five birds (two neighboring pairs and an intruder) were engaged in an aggressive dispute that lasted 10 min; the dispute was accompanied by agitated calling, posturing, and chasing (DE, unpublished data). Chases are usually short, lasting from a few seconds to approximately 30 s, but can cover as much as 200 m (DE, unpublished data). A chase usually ends towards the resident's territorial boundary, but sometimes it will continue well within the neighboring territory, at which point the pursuit may reverse.

Sexual Behavior

Mating System and Operational Sex Ratio

Short-clawed Lark is apparently monogamous for the duration of a breeding season, with females dispersing during the non-breeding season (5).

Courtship, Copulation, and Pair Bond

The initiation of breeding is preceded by a few days of mate guarding, during which the male closely follows his mate on the ground and in flight, sometimes hovering above her in fluttering flight. Mate guarding is also associated with frequent singing, displays, and the agitated contact call. The actual pre-copulation courtship ritual involves a male slowly shuffling towards a female in a crouched manner with his tail cocked, dorsal feathers raised so that it appears hunched, and its wings drooped and held slightly away from the body, quivering gently and giving the agitated contact call with the neck tucked in; its head is then thrown backward and pointed towards the sky (5; DE, unpublished data). A receptive female will solicit copulation by assuming a crouched position and swaying her body slightly from side to side while quivering her wings (DE, unpublished data). This courtship ritual may be repeated a few times, interspersed with chasing and fluttering flight before copulation occurs. Copulation lasts 3–4 s, followed by both sexes performing self-maintenance behaviors such as wing-stretching and body-shaking. Although courtship feeding has been recorded, it appears uncommon and not necessarily associated with copulation (5).

The pair bond usually lasts a single breeding season, but there are a few records of pair bonds lasting successive seasons and also of a female returning to the same territory two seasons later (5, 45).

Extra-Pair Mating Behavior/Paternity

Information needed.

Brood Parasitism

There is no evidence of interspecific brood parasitism.

Social and Interspecific Behavior

Degree of Sociality

Birds are always seen alone or in pairs (DE, unpublished data). Unless males are guarding their mate prior to nesting, the foraging association is generally a loose one and partners may at times be a considerable distance apart, relying on calls to maintain contact. Immature birds are seldom seen in the company of adults.

Play

There is no evidence of play.

Nonpredatory Interspecific Interactions

Short-clawed Lark is generally tolerant of other birds. In Botswana, it is dominant over other larks, such as Rufous-naped Lark (Mirafra africana) and Sabota Lark (Calendulauda sabota) (31); this is not necessarily the case on the Polokwane Plateau, and dominance over other lark species depends on breeding status, i.e., birds with active nests are more aggressive and dominant in interspecific encounters (DE, unpublished data).

It does not join mixed-species foraging flocks, nor does it join other birds when mobbing a predator (DE, unpublished data). It is circumspect when nesting and sometimes engages in distraction or defense behaviors towards species that pose no threat to the nest., e.g., Buffy Pipit (Anthus vaalensis) . A male shepherded a Temminck's Courser (Cursorius temminckii) away from the nest when it approached too close. On another occasion, a male regularly chased a Rufous-chested Swallow (Cecropis semirufa) that had a nest in a termite mound close to its nest (DE, unpublished data).

Predation

Kinds of Predators

There is only one record of actual predation of a Short-clawed Lark: a banded mongoose (Mungos mungo) raided a nest containing two nestlings (5). Two further predation attempts have been observed, but neither resulted in actual mortality (DE, unpublished data). A Pallid Harrier (Circus macrourus) grasped an adult on the ground and flew a short distance before either dropping it or the lark managed to escape the talons unharmed. In another instance, a domestic dog was caught on camera sniffing at two well-grown nestlings but they remained motionless and the dog lost interest. Common potential predators within the range include reptile, avian, and mammalian predators: egg-eating snake (Dasypeltis scabra), boomslang (Dispholidus typus), cobras (Naja spp.), different species of skinks (Scincidae) and lizards (Lacertidae), a variety of hawks in the genus Accipiter (Accipitridae), shrikes (Laniidae), crows and ravens (Corvidae), rodents (Muridae), mongooses (Herpestidae), genets (Viverridae), and black-backed jackal (Canis [Lupelella] mesomelas). In areas with traditional agricultural practices, domestic livestock such as cows, sheep, donkeys, and goats pose a threat to nests by trampling, and stray dogs may also pose a threat to nesting birds. Although uncommon, birds are occasionally hunted using handmade slingshots to supplement the diet in rural areas on the Polokwane Plateau, as males are large, conspicuous, and seldom fly far when disturbed (23).

Manner of Depredation

No detailed information, but nest predation by the potential predators listed above is likely the major vulnerability for Short-clawed Lark.

Response to Predators

When threatened, the first response is to remain motionless and assess the threat level. Usually, the bird will take off and perch nearby, giving the alarm call. If it is an aerial threat, the bird may crouch, often relying on its cryptic plumage to escape detection (DE, unpublished data). Terrestrial threats may elicit the same response, but the birds are often reluctant to flush and may attempt to escape by running away rather than flying (13). If an individual is repeatedly flushed, it will fly a considerable distance away or seek shelter in dense vegetation (13; DE, unpublished data). A potential nest predator will be lured away by adults feigning injury, performing a rodent-run distraction display, and repeated alarm calling (5). Another form of apparent distraction behavior is to pretend to be foraging within 1–2 m of the predator and stay just beyond the predator's reach; one bird was seen landing within 2 m of a yellow mongoose (Cynictis penicillata) and pretending to be feeding. Nestlings respond to a potential threat or the parents' alarm calls by remaining silent and motionless and closing their eyes to mere slits (5).

Recommended Citation

Engelbrecht, G. D. (2023). Short-clawed Lark (Certhilauda chuana), version 2.0. In Birds of the World (D. G. Allan, Editor). Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, NY, USA. https://doi.org/10.2173/bow.shclar1.02