Conservation and Management

CITES I. A restricted-range species: present in the North-east Brazilian Caatinga Endemic Bird Area (41 Stattersfield, A. J., M. J. Crosby, A. J. Long, and D. C. Wege (1998). Endemic Bird Areas of the World: Priorities for Biodiversity Conservation. BirdLife Conservation Series 7. BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK. Close ). Although known to science since the first quarter of the 19th century and fully protected by Brazilian law since 1967 (42 Sick, H. (1969). Aves brasileiras ameaçadas de extinção e noçes gerais de conservação de aves no Brasil. Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências 41(Supplemento):205–229. Close ), the species was only rediscovered in the wild in 1985, when just five birds, including two pairs, were located at Melância Creek, near Curaçá, in northern Bahia (17 Roth, P. (1985). Notes on Spix’s Macaw and observations on some other bird species of northeastern Brazil. Report on the excursion in search of Spix’s Macaw, June 22 to July 24, 1985. Unpublished report. Close , 18 Roth, P. (1986). Report on the second half of the project in search of Spix’s Macaw. Unpublished report. Close , 43 Roth, P. (1987). A last chance to save Spix’s Macaw. Oryx 21:73. Close , 31 Roth, P. (1990). Spix-Ara Cyanopsitta spixii: was wissen wir heute über diese seltene Vögel? Bericht über ein 1985-1988 durchgeführtes Projekt. Papageien 3:86–88, 121–125. Close ). Between 1819 and 1985, there were very few observations of the species in the wild (and even fewer can be concerned confirmed; see review in 13 Collar, N. J., L. P. Gonzaga, N. Krabbe, A. Madroño, L. G. Naranjo, T. A. Parker, and D. C. Wege (1992). Threatened Birds of the Americas. The ICBP/IUCN Red Data Book. Part 2. Third Edition. ICBP, Cambridge, UK. Close ), and the species has always been considered rare in aviculture, although there seems to have been an influx of birds into Europe in the 1920s (44 Low, R. (1972). Parrots of South America. John Gifford Ltd, London, UK. Close , 13 Collar, N. J., L. P. Gonzaga, N. Krabbe, A. Madroño, L. G. Naranjo, T. A. Parker, and D. C. Wege (1992). Threatened Birds of the Americas. The ICBP/IUCN Red Data Book. Part 2. Third Edition. ICBP, Cambridge, UK. Close ); museum specimens are also very few in number, most of them preserved captive birds (13 Collar, N. J., L. P. Gonzaga, N. Krabbe, A. Madroño, L. G. Naranjo, T. A. Parker, and D. C. Wege (1992). Threatened Birds of the Americas. The ICBP/IUCN Red Data Book. Part 2. Third Edition. ICBP, Cambridge, UK. Close ). Roth (17 Roth, P. (1985). Notes on Spix’s Macaw and observations on some other bird species of northeastern Brazil. Report on the excursion in search of Spix’s Macaw, June 22 to July 24, 1985. Unpublished report. Close , 18 Roth, P. (1986). Report on the second half of the project in search of Spix’s Macaw. Unpublished report. Close , 31 Roth, P. (1990). Spix-Ara Cyanopsitta spixii: was wissen wir heute über diese seltene Vögel? Bericht über ein 1985-1988 durchgeführtes Projekt. Papageien 3:86–88, 121–125. Close ) postulated that the population in the environs of Curaçá might have been 30 or more pairs at the start of the 20th century, and the species may have persisted almost in such numbers as late as the late 1970s; by the mid 1980s, trappers had been active at the site for some 15 years, removing at least 23 birds and possibly as many as 40, and by 1988 appeared to have taken the last five (17 Roth, P. (1985). Notes on Spix’s Macaw and observations on some other bird species of northeastern Brazil. Report on the excursion in search of Spix’s Macaw, June 22 to July 24, 1985. Unpublished report. Close , 13 Collar, N. J., L. P. Gonzaga, N. Krabbe, A. Madroño, L. G. Naranjo, T. A. Parker, and D. C. Wege (1992). Threatened Birds of the Americas. The ICBP/IUCN Red Data Book. Part 2. Third Edition. ICBP, Cambridge, UK. Close ). However, confounding expectations, one wild survivor  was located in July 1990 (34 Juniper, A. T., and C. Yamashita (1990). The conservation of Spix’s Macaw. Oryx 24(4):224–228. Close , 15 Juniper, T. (2002). Spix’s Macaw. The Race to Save the World’s Rarest Bird. Fourth Estate, London, UK. Close ), when it was realized that while trapping was the proximate cause of the species’ rarity, the ultimate cause was the almost total loss of caraiba woodland, its nesting habitat, of which only 30 km² appeared to remain (13 Collar, N. J., L. P. Gonzaga, N. Krabbe, A. Madroño, L. G. Naranjo, T. A. Parker, and D. C. Wege (1992). Threatened Birds of the Americas. The ICBP/IUCN Red Data Book. Part 2. Third Edition. ICBP, Cambridge, UK. Close , 45 Vaughan, D. (1993). The Spix’s Macaw: on the brink of extinction. Bird Talk 11(10):26–30. Close , 46 Collar, N. J. (1996). Priorities for parrot conservation in the New World. Cotinga 5:26–31. Close ).

Climate Change

Climate change may have negative effects on water availability and plant life in the Caatinga biome (47 Pinheiro, E. A. R., Q. D. J. Van Lier, and A. H. F. Bezerra (2017). Hydrology of a water‐limited forest under climate change scenarios: the case of the Caatinga biome, Brazil. Forests 8:62. Close , 48 Silva, J. L., O. Cruz-Neto, C. A. Peres, M. Tabarelli, and A. V. Lopes (2019). Climate change will reduce suitable Caatinga dry forest habitat for endemic plants with disproportionate impacts on specialized reproductive strategies. PLoS ONE 14(5):e0217028. Close ) on which the Spix's Macaw is dependent for food and nesting sites (13 Collar, N. J., L. P. Gonzaga, N. Krabbe, A. Madroño, L. G. Naranjo, T. A. Parker, and D. C. Wege (1992). Threatened Birds of the Americas. The ICBP/IUCN Red Data Book. Part 2. Third Edition. ICBP, Cambridge, UK. Close , 45 Vaughan, D. (1993). The Spix’s Macaw: on the brink of extinction. Bird Talk 11(10):26–30. Close , 46 Collar, N. J. (1996). Priorities for parrot conservation in the New World. Cotinga 5:26–31. Close , 49 Gomides, S. C., T. M. Machado, J. C. Evangelista‐Vale, A. T. Martins‐Oliveira, J. C. Pires‐Oliveira, A. Muller, L. Barros da Rosa, D. L. Santos‐Silva, and P. V. Eisenlohr (2021). Assessing species reintroduction sites based on future climate suitability for food resources. Conservation Biology 35:1821–1832. Close ). Areas suitable for Spix's Macaw are expected to decrease as a result of future climate change (50 de Oliveira, G., M. B. Araújo, T. F. Rangel, D. Alagador, and J. A. Diniz-Filho (2012). Conserving the Brazilian semiarid (Caatinga) biome under climate change. Biodiversity and Conservation 21:2913–2926. Close ), which could impact the species’ viability in the wild (49 Gomides, S. C., T. M. Machado, J. C. Evangelista‐Vale, A. T. Martins‐Oliveira, J. C. Pires‐Oliveira, A. Muller, L. Barros da Rosa, D. L. Santos‐Silva, and P. V. Eisenlohr (2021). Assessing species reintroduction sites based on future climate suitability for food resources. Conservation Biology 35:1821–1832. Close ).

Human Impacts

Undoubtedly, the return to the wild of a population of Spix's Macaw will attract the attention of birdwatchers and avitourism (as termed by Steven et al. 51 Steven, R., Morrison, C., and J. G. Castley (2015). Birdwatching and avitourism: a global review ofresearch into its participant markets, distribution and impacts, highlighting future research priorities to inform sustainable avitourism management. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 23(8–9):1257–1276. Close ). Whilst avitourism can have positive effects on local economies and promote the appreciation of local natural history knowledge and education (52 Dias, R., and V. O Figueira (2010). Turismo de observação de aves: um estudo de caso do município de Ubatuba/SP-Brasil. Revista de Estudos Politécnicos 8(14):85–96. Close ), there is also the potential of unintended harm to a rare focal species that may be sensitive to the direct or indirect consequences of human activity (53 Booth, J. E., Gaston, K. J., Evans, K. L., and P. R. Armsworth (2011). The value of species rarity in biodiversity recreation: a birdwatching example. Biological Conservation 144(11):2728–2732. Close , 54 Lugarini, C., Vercillo, U. E., Purchase, C., Watson, R., and N. A. Schischakin (2021). Conservação da ararinha-azul, Cyanopsitta spixii (Wagler, 1832): desafios e conquistas. Biodiversidade Brasileira 11(3):1–16. Close , 55 Corbari, S. D. A (2022). Raridade no contexto do turismo de observação de aves: o caso da ararinha-azul (Cyanopsitta spixii) e os desafios futuros. Revista Brasileira de Ecoturismo 15(3):307–328. Close ).

With wild populations likely extirpated, the future of this species depends entirely upon the continued success of captive-breeding efforts currently underway. The Brazilian nature conservation authority, IBAMA, established a Permanent Committee for the Recovery of Spix’s Macaw in 1990, which has involved various interested parties including most holders of captive birds, plus representatives of certain international nature conservation bodies (15 Juniper, T. (2002). Spix’s Macaw. The Race to Save the World’s Rarest Bird. Fourth Estate, London, UK. Close ); around this time, just ca. 25 individuals existed in captivity, roughly equally divided between those held in Brazil and those elsewhere (56 Arndt, T., A. Sojer, H. Strunden, and R. Wirth (1986). 5 Minuten vor 12 für den Spix-Ara (Cyanopsitta spixii). Gefiederte Welt 110:321–323. Close , 24 Keller, C. (1987). Up-to-date information on the Spix Macaw (Cyanopsitta spixii, Wagler) and the environmental situation in Brazil. Unpublished report. Close , 57 Thomsen, J. B., and C. A. Munn (1988). Cyanopsitta spixii: a non-recovery report. Parrotletter 1(1):6‒7. Close , 28 Roth, P. (1989). Spix’s Macaw: population, actual status and biology of Spix’s Macaw Cyanopsitta spixii. Unpublished report. Close , 58 Sojer, A. (1989). Spix-Ara (Cyanopsitta spixii). Zoologische Gesellschaft für Arten- und Populationsschutz Mitglieder Mitteilungen 1989:5‒6. Close , 59 Sojer, A., and R. Wirth (1989). Zur Situation des Spix-Ara. Voliere 12:139‒140. Close , 60 Silva, T. (1990). Der Spix-Ara (Cyanopsitta spixii) - gelingt seine Rettung durch Gefangenschaftszucht? Papageien 3:57–60. Close , 61 Silva, T. (1991). Der Spix-Ara (Cyanopsitta spixii) - gelingt seine Rettung durch Gefangenschaftszucht? Voliere 14:87–90. Close , 62 Smith, G. A. (1991). Spix’s Macaw Ara (Cyanopsitta) spixii. Magazine of the Parrot Society 15:164–165. Close , 29 Keller, C. (1992). Em busca da Ararinha de Spix. Atualidades Ornitológicas 45:5. Close ; see review in 13 Collar, N. J., L. P. Gonzaga, N. Krabbe, A. Madroño, L. G. Naranjo, T. A. Parker, and D. C. Wege (1992). Threatened Birds of the Americas. The ICBP/IUCN Red Data Book. Part 2. Third Edition. ICBP, Cambridge, UK. Close ). Attempts have been made to improve captive-breeding performance by moving birds between facilities (63 Silva, T. (1994). Breeding the Spix’s Macaw Cyanopsitta spixii at Loro Parque, Tenerife. International Zoo Yearbook 33:176–180. Close , 64 Silva, T. (1994). Breeding the Spix’s Macaw. American Cage-Bird Magazine 66(2):51–55. Close , 65 Sweeney, R. G. (1994). Breeding the Spix’s Macaw in captivity. Avicultural Society of America Bulletin 23(4):20–22. Close , 66 Anonymous (1995). Spix’s Macaw recovery project (Cyanopsitta spixii). Avicultural Society of America Bulletin 24(5):16–22. Close , 67 da Ré, M. (1995). Edging back from the edge of extinction. World Birdwatch 17(4):17–19. Close , 68 Sweeney, R. G. (1995). Spix’s Macaws at Loro Parque. Avicultural Society of America Bulletin 24(10):26–28. Close , 69 Sweeney, R. G. (1996). New pairings for Spix’s Macaw at Loro Parque. Magazine of the Parrot Society 30(11):23. Close ), and there has been a steady growth in the number of captive birds to ca. 130, although most (and probably all) are very closely related to one another. In 1995, after tests on feathers to confirm the sex (male) of the last wild bird (70 Griffiths, R., and B. Tiwari (1995). Sex of the last wild Spix’s Macaw. Nature 375:454. Close ), a captive wild-caught female was released to join it (71 Anonymous (1995). Last wild Spix’s Macaw gets mate. Cotinga 4:10–11. Close , 72 Anonymous (1995). Mate for lone macaw. World Birdwatch 17(2):4. Close , 73 Margolis, M. (1996). Single, lonely parrot seeks companionship. International Wildlife 26(1):50–54. Close ). However, the wild bird had paired with a solitary Blue-winged Macaw (Primolius maracana), and although the released female met up with the male they did not form a bond, possibly because of the Primolius, and in due course the female disappeared (74 Juniper, A. T. (1997). Last wild male may be a dad. BBC Wildlife 15(9):17. Close ). The solitary male had also disappeared by 2000, and is suspected to have collided with a powerline (15 Juniper, T. (2002). Spix’s Macaw. The Race to Save the World’s Rarest Bird. Fourth Estate, London, UK. Close ). Subsequently, there have been occasional local reports, including from Serra da Capivara National Park (16 Tobias, J. A., S. H. M. Butchart, and N. J. Collar (2006). Lost and found: a gap analysis for the Neotropical avifauna. Neotropical Birding 1:4–22. Close ), and a bird filmed near Curaçá in June 2016 (raising considerable expectations, but now deemed to have originated from captivity), which kept hope alive that a small population may have continued to exist in the wild (75 Mazar Barnett, J., C. L. Gomes da Silva, H. F. Pereira de Araujo, A. L. Roos, C. G. Machado, A. M. K. Uejima, and L. N. Naka (2014). The avifauna of Curaçá (Bahia): the last stronghold of Spix’s Macaw. Revista Brasileira de Ornitologia 22(2):121–137. Close ). In 2018, a quantitative approach to analyzing the probability of global extinction determined that the species should be considered Extinct in the Wild (76 Butchart, S. H. M., S. Lowe, R. W. Martin, A. Symes, J. R. S. Westrip, and H. Wheatley (2018). Which bird species have gone extinct? A novel quantitative classification approach. Biological Conservation 227:9–18. Close ), an assessment made official by BirdLife International in 2019 (14 BirdLife International (2021). Species factsheet: Cyanopsitta spixii. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 03/06/2021. Close ). In Brazil it was considered Extinct in the Wild (77 Silveira, L. F., and F. C. Straube (2008). Aves. Pp. 378–679 in:. Close ) but is now assessed as Critically Endangered (Possibly Extinct in the Wild) (78 MMA (2014). Lista Nacional Oficial de Espécies da Fauna Ameaçadas de Extinção. Portaria No 444, de 17 de dezembro de 2014. Diário Oficial da União - Seção 1. Nº 245, quinta-feira, 18 de dezembro de 2014. Close , 79 ICMBio (2018). Livro Vermelho da Fauna Brasileira Ameaçada de Extinção: Volume III - Aves. Instituto Chico Mendes de Conservação da Biodiversidade and Ministério do Meio Ambiente, Brasília, DF, Brazil. Close ).

A species action plan was produced in 2012 (80 Barros, Y. D. M., Y. Soye, C. Y. Miyaki, R. Watson, L. Crosta, and C. Lugarini (2012). Plano de Ação Nacional para a Conservação da ararinha-azul: Cyanopsitta spixii. Instituto Chico Mendes de Conservação da Biodiversidade, Brasilía, Brazil. Close ) and the Projeto Ararinha na Natureza has been working to conserve the species since the same year (14 BirdLife International (2021). Species factsheet: Cyanopsitta spixii. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 03/06/2021. Close ); the latter is supported by the Brazilian Ministry of Environment, ICMBio (Instituto Chico Mendes de Conservação da Biodiversidade and Ministério do Meio Ambiente), Parrots International, Association for the Conservation of Threatened Parrots, Al Wabra Wildlife Preservation, and Jurong Bird Park Singapore. As preparatory work necessary for any ultimate release of captive-bred birds into the wild, in 2009 the 2,200 ha Fazenda Concordia was purchased with the assistance of Al Wabra Wildlife Preservation; this was the site of one of the last sightings of the last wild Spix's Macaw and the release site for the female that was released in 1995. Concordia abuts the 400 ha Fazenda Gangorra, which had previously been purchased by a conservation consortium. In 2018, the government officially designated the 30 ha Refúgio de Vida Silvestre Ararinha Azul (Spix’s Macaw Wildlife Refuge) and the 90 ha Área de Proteção Ambiental Ararinha Azul (Spix’s Macaw Environmental Protection Area) in Curaçá and Juazeiro (81 Reisfeld, A. (2018). Boa notizia para a ararinha-azul. http://www.savebrasil.org.br/ararinha-azul-ganha-duas-ucs/ (accessed: 20 June 2019). Close ), and plans were developed to reintroduce the species at these sites, as well as at Concordia (81 Reisfeld, A. (2018). Boa notizia para a ararinha-azul. http://www.savebrasil.org.br/ararinha-azul-ganha-duas-ucs/ (accessed: 20 June 2019). Close , 82 Association for the Conservation of Threatened Parrots (ACTP). 2019. Spix’s Macaw: A small blue parrot extinct in the wild. https://www.act-parrots.org/spixs-macaw/?lang=en. (accessed 20 June 2019). Close ). Work to conserve habitat in areas suitable for reintroduction, including by controlling goats, has also been pursued (83 Reisfeld, A. (2017). Ararinha-azul: sucesso da reintrodução depende de caprinocultura sustentavel na caatinga. http://www.savebrasil.org.br/ararinha-newslettermaio/ (accessed 20 June 2019). Close ), as has work to engage the local communities, raising awareness of the species’ conservation and its habitat (80 Barros, Y. D. M., Y. Soye, C. Y. Miyaki, R. Watson, L. Crosta, and C. Lugarini (2012). Plano de Ação Nacional para a Conservação da ararinha-azul: Cyanopsitta spixii. Instituto Chico Mendes de Conservação da Biodiversidade, Brasilía, Brazil. Close ). Local farmers were educated about the benefits of supplementary feeding of goats to reduce their impact on the caatinga (83 Reisfeld, A. (2017). Ararinha-azul: sucesso da reintrodução depende de caprinocultura sustentavel na caatinga. http://www.savebrasil.org.br/ararinha-newslettermaio/ (accessed 20 June 2019). Close ). A new Spix’s Macaw Release, Breeding and Research Centre has been built (82 Association for the Conservation of Threatened Parrots (ACTP). 2019. Spix’s Macaw: A small blue parrot extinct in the wild. https://www.act-parrots.org/spixs-macaw/?lang=en. (accessed 20 June 2019). Close ). Finally, after decades of such planning and work, eight adult captive-bred macaws were released on 11 June 2022, and another 12 individuals are being prepared for release in December 2022.